THE   TEACHER'S 

HAND-BOOK  OF  SLOJD. 


Published  under  ike  auspices  of  the 
SLOJD     ASSOCIATION. 


THE    TEACHER'S 

HAND-BOOK  OF  SLOJD 

AS  PRACTISED  AND  TAUGHT  AT  NAAS 

CONTAINING    EXPLANATIONS    AND    DETAILS    OF 
EACH   EXERCISE. 


By    OTTO    SALOMON, 

Director  of  the  Naas  Seminarium. 
ASSISTED  BY  CARL    NORDENDAHL   AND   ALFRED   JOHANSSON. 


TRANSLATED     AND     ADAPTED     FOR     ENGLISH     TEACHERS 

By  MARY  R.  WALKER,  AND  WILLIAM  NELSON, 

St.  George's  Training  College,  Edinburgh,  Of  the  Manchester  Schools  for  the  Deaf 

and  Dumb. 


WITH  OVER   130   ILLUSTRATIONS  AND   PLATES. 


SILVER,    BURDETT    &    CO., 

PUBLISHERS, 

BOSTON,     NEW    YORK,     CHICAGO. 

1891. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SWEDISH  EDITION. 


A  DESIEE  has  for  some  time  been  expressed  in  various  quarters  for  a 
Hand-Book  of  Slojd,  written  from  the  educational  point  of  view.  There 
have  been  many  indications,  especially  in  connection  with  Slojd  carpen- 
try, that  teachers  are  not  well  enough  acquainted  with  the  tools  em- 
ployed to  select  and  manage  them  properly ;  and  a  degree  of  uncertainty 
seems  to  prevail  regarding  the  right  method  of  executing  the  exercises. 
Now,  it  is  true  that  no  one  can  acquire  this  knowledge  from  books  ;  the 
way  to  acquire  it  is  by  practical,  personal  experience.  Yet,  to  retain  this 
experience,  and  apply  it,  is  partially  a  matter  of  memory,  and,  therefore, 
systematically  arranged  directions  are  capable  of  rendering  aid  which  is 
not  to  be  despised.  A  hand-book  like  the  present  does  not,  and  could 
not,  supersede  personal  experience  at  the  bench,  or  render  a  course  of  in- 
struction unnecessary.  Its  sole  object  is  to  supplement  and  complete 
the  notes  which  every  conscientious  student  takes  during  such  a  course. 
Its  aim  is,  therefore,  chiefly  to  strengthen  and  confirm  knowledge  already 
acquired  ;  but,  though  it  is  thus  limited  in  scope,  and,  on  this  account, 
perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  in  some  respects  incomplete,  the  writers 
venture  to  express  the  hope  that  it  will  be  welcomed  by  many  teachers. 

Books  are,  perhaps,  more  frequently  published  before  their  time  than 
after  it ;  and  although  there  have  been  numerous  opportunities  for  observ- 
ation in  the  province  of  Educational  Slojd  during  the  last  eighteen  years 
(the  Slojd  Institution  at  Naas  having  begun  operations  in  1872),  the 
writers  are  nevertheless  uncertain  whether  the  time  has  really  yet  come 
for  the  publication  of  definite  directions ;  or,  at  least,  whether  their  know- 
ledge of  the  subject  is  yet  complete  enough  to  justify  their  appearance 
in  print.  But,  if  they  have  been  premature,  the  sole  reason  is  to  be 
found  in  their  desire  to  satisfy  a  want,  which  becomes  every  year  more 
pressing. 

The  views  expressed  in  the  book  are,  for  obvious  reasons,  in  full  ac- 
cordance with  the  system  of  instruction  followed  at  Na'as.  They  are  the 
outcome  of  careful  observations,  and  of  experiments  tested  by  practice. 
Yet,  even  if  these  views  should  be  confirmed  by  many  teachers,  the 
writers,  knowing  that  opinions  are  divided  in  the  matter  of  instruction  in 
Slojd,  as  in  most  other  questions,  are  fully  prepared  for  adverse  criticism. 
Whether  this  criticism  be  justified  or  not,  of  one  thing  they  are  certain, 
and  that  is,  that  in  all  honesty  of  purpose  and  strength  of  conviction 


2065947 


IV.  PREFACE. 

they  have  striven  to  fulfil  a  for  from  easy  task.  They  trust  that  others 
with  greater  ability  will  succeed  them  and  do  it  better.  So  little  atten- 
tion has  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  subject  in  question  that  it  has  been 
necessary  to  generalise  and  draw  conclusions  almost  exclusively  from 
personal  experience.  But  their  motto  has  been — "  Prove  all  things,  hold 
fast  to  that  which  is  good  " ;  and  much  that  in  the  beginning  and  in  the 
light  of  comparatively  limited  experience  met  with  their  approval,  has, 
on  closer  examination,  been  rejected  or  modified. 

But,  though  this  hand-book  is  necessarily  the  outcome  chiefly  of 
personal  observation  and  experience,  the  writers  have  to  some  extent 
been  able  to  avail  themselves  of  the  knowledge  of  others,  and  to  refer  to 
competent  authorities.  This  applies  especially  to  Chapter  II.,  for  the 
contents  of  which  frequent  reference  has  been  made  to  the  writings  of 
Karmarsch,  Thelaus,  and  others.  The  Plates  at  the  end,  and  most  of 
the  Illustrations  in  the  body  of  the  book,  are  executed  from  original  draw- 
ings made  for  the  purpose. 

In  order  to  keep  within  due  limits,  much  has  been  omitted  which,  per- 
haps, ought  to  have  been  included.  Whether  or  not,  on  the  other  hand, 
some  things  have  been  included  which  ought  to  have  been  omitted,  must 
in  the  meantime  be  left  an  open  question. 

The  parts  taken  by  the  respective  authors  are  as  follows  :— Chapter  I. 
has  been  written  by  Otto  Salomon  ;  Chapters  II.,  III.,  and  IV.,  by  Carl 
Nordendahl,  who  also  undertook  all  arrangements  connected  with  the 
illustrations ;  and  Chapter  V.,  by  Alfred  Johansson.  Looked  at  as  a 
whole,  however,  this  little  book  is  the  product  of  united  labour,  and  it 
contains  nothing  which  is  not  the  result  of  diligent  interchange  of  thought. 


TRANSLATORS'  PREFACE. 


THIS  Hand-book  was  written  originally  for  Swedish  people,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  Swedish  schools ;  but  the 
presence  of  a  large  body  of  English  teachers  at  the  Autumn  Slojd  Course 
at  Naas  has  testified  for  the  last  four  yeartf  to  the  interest  taken  in  the 
subject  by  English  people,  and  the  latest  modifications  of  the  English  and 
Scotch  Codes  as  regards  manual  training,  point  to  the  introduction  at  no 
distant  date  of  systematic  instruction  in  some  branch  of  manual  work  in 
our  state-aided  schools.  It  has  therefore  seemed  desirable  that  this 
Hand-book  of  Wood  Slojd  should  be  translated  for  English  readers  with 
any  modifications  necessary  tb  make  it  suitable  for  English  teachers  and 
students.  These  modifications  consist  partly  of  the  omission  of  matter 
bearing  on  conditions  peculiar  to  Sweden,  and  partly  of  the  addition  to 
the  text  of  certain  paragraphs,  which  seemed  necessary  from  an  English 
point  of  view.  Nothing  has  been  taken  away  or  added  without  careful 
consultation  with  Herr  Salomon,  and  without  his  approval.  At  the  same 
time,  as  any  additions  to  the  original  text  have  been  made  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  translators,  and  as  they  are  responsible  for  them,  these  paragraphs 
have  been  enclosed  in  brackets  as  translators'  notes.  The  whole  trans- 
lation has  been  revised  under  the  supervision  of  Herr  Salomon  and  other 
competent  judges  at  Naas,  and  the  translators  therefore  trust  that  the 
work  they  have  undertaken  is  a  faithful  representation  of  the  views  held 
and  acted  on  at  the  headquarters  of  Educational  Slojd. 

In  giving  this  book  to  English  readers,  they  feel,  however,  that  one  or 
two  points  of  detail  call  for  special  explanation,  particularly  as  these 
touch  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  educational  Slojd,  and  as  any 
misunderstanding  as  to  details  might  lead  to  a  more  serious  misunder- 
standing as  to  principles.  One  of  these  details  is  the  use  of  the  knife  in 
educational  Slojd.  In  the  following  pages  the  use  of  the  knife  is  often 
recommended  where  the  English  carpenter  would  use  the  chisel,  or  some 
other  special  tool.  The  defence  of  the  knife  in  such  cases  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that,  while  it  is  the  most  familiar  and  the  simplest  tool  which 
can  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupil,  it  is  full  of  potentialities  in  the 
hands  of  the  intelligent  worker,  who  can  perform  with  it  many  exercises 
which  the  tradesman  executes  in  a  more  mechanical  way  with  some  other 
tool. 

Again,  directions  are  given  which  differ  in  other  respects  from  those 
which  the  carpenter  would  give.  The  work  of  the  slb'jder  is  often  done 


vi.  PREFACE. 

not  only  with  different  tools,  but  in  a  different  order  from  that  of  the 
artisan.  This  inversion  of  order  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  principle 
that  each  article  shall  be  executed  entirely  by  the  individual  worker. 
Division  of  labour,  though  necessary  from  the  tradesman's  point  of  view, 
is  not  permitted  in  Slojd,  deadening,  as  it  does,  individuality,  and  reducing 
to  a  minimum  the  calls  made  on  the  intelligence. 

These  and  other  deviations  from  the  methods  of  the  carpenter  are  made 
not  in  ignorance,  but  of  set  purpose,  and  have  their  grounds  in  the  com- 
prehensive principle  that  all  method  in  Slojd  must  aim  in  the  first 
place  at  the  physical  and  mental  development  of  the  pupil,  and  only  at 
the  production  of  articles  in  so  far  as  this  subserves  the  primary  aim. 

In  close  connection  with  this  stands  the  question  of  the  place  occupied 
in  the  system  by  the  articles  produced,  i.e.,  by  the  models.  Clear  as  this 
question  appears  in  the  light  of  the  fundamental  principles  on  which 
educational  Slojd  is  based,  the  idea  still  seems  to  prevail  to  some  extent 
that,  if  the  principles  are  accepted,  the  Naas  models  must  also  be  accepted 
unconditionally,  and  that  the  two  stand  and  fall  together.  So  far  is  this 
from  being  the  case  that,  at  the  present  time,  one  series  of  Naas  models  is 
gradually  becoming  English  in  its  character,  and  only  waits  further  sug- 
gestions from  English  teachers  to  become  entirely  so.  The  sole  reason 
that  it  still  contains  models  which  do  not  entirely  fulfil  the  condition  of 
being  familiar  and  useful  in  the  homes  of  English  children,  is  that  English 
people  have  hitherto  been  unable  to  suggest  satisfactory  substitutes.  The 
models  are  merely  the  expression  of  the  system,  and  to  carry  out  that 
system  thoroughly  they  must  be  national  in  their  character,  and  ought, 
therefore,  to  vary  in  their  nature  with  the  countries  into  which  Slojd  is 
introduced  as  a  subject  of  instruction. 

The  translators  are  at  present  engaged  on  an  English  edition  of  Herr 
Johansson's  Manual  of  Directions  for  making  the  models  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraph.  This  Manual,  which  will  be  ready  for  issue 
shortly,  will  complete  the  Handbook  on  the  purely  practical  side.  As 
the  principles  on  which  Slojd  rests  as  an  educational  factor  are  neces- 
sarily very  briefly  dealt  with  in  the  Handbook,  the  translators  are  glad 
to  learn  that  "The  Theory  of  Slojd,"  the  only  authorised  English  edition 
of  Herr  Salomon's  Lectures,  edited  by  an  Inspector  of  Schools,  will 
shortly  appear,  and  will  form  a  companion  volume  to  this  Handbook. 

As  this  translation,  like  the  original,  is  the  work  of  more  than  one 
writer,  it  remains  to  add  that  the  book  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Mary  R.  Walker,  with  the  assistance  of  William  Nelson  on  all  points 
relating  to  technical  knowledge  and  technical  terminology. 


Table  of  Contents. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Introductory  Remarks. 

PAGE 

I.  Educational  Slojd  1 

II.  The  Teacher  of  Educational  Slojd  2 

III.  The  special  kind  of  Slojd  recommended  6 

IV.  Method  9 
V.  The  Pupils  17 

VI.  The  time  given  to  instruction  18 

VII.  The  Slojd-room     -  18 

VIII.  The  position  of  the  body  during  work  21 

IX.  Some  rules  for  the  Slojd  Teacher        -  24 

CHAPTER  II. 
Wood  or  Timber. 

A.  THE   STRUCTURE  AND  COMPOSITION   OP  WOOD,  Wood- 
cells,  Wood-fibres,   Concentric    annual    layers,  Vessels    or 
Air-tubes,  Heart-wood  and  Sap-wood,  the  Pith  and  the 
Medullary  Bays,  the  Sap,  Water  capacity  27 

B.  THE  CHANGES  WHICH  WOOD  UNDERGOES  35 

I.    Changes  in  the  water  capacity.    Shrinking,  cracking, 

swelling      -  36 

II.  Means  of  preventing  cracking  and  warping.  Season- 
ing. Precautions  necessary  to  prevent  cracking  and 
warping  under  special  conditions  -  40 

III.     The  decay  of  timber.    Means  of  preventing  decay       -          43 

C.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD  45 

I.     Comparison  of  the  qualities  of  different  kinds  of  wood. 
The  strength,  cleavage,  hardness,  toughness,  elasticity, 
texture,  colour,  smell,  weight,  and  durability  of 
timber  45 

II.     Characteristics  of  different  kinds  of  trees    -  51 

1.  Needle-leaved  trees.    2.  Broad-leaved  trees.  52 


Viii.  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Tools. 

A.  A  CHOICE  OF  TOOLS  59 

B.  APPLIANCES  FOR  HOLDING  THE  WORK  62 

I.  The  Bench       -  62 

II.  Handscrews  68 

C.  SETTING  OUT  70 

I.    The  Metre-measure  70 

II.  The  Marking-point  71 

III.  The  Marking-gauge  71 

IV.  Compasses      -  73 
V.    Squares  and  Bevels.  74 

VI.    Winding-laths  or  Straight-edges  -  76 

D.  TOOLS  USED  FOR  CUTTING  UP  THE  WOOD  AND  MAKING 

THE  ARTICLES  77 

I.    Saws  77 

1.  Saws  with  Frames  -  82 
1.  The  Frame-saw.    2.  The  Bow-saw  -  82 

2.  Saws  without  Frames  85 
1.  The  Handsaw.    2.  The  Dove-tail  saw.  3.  The 

Tenon-saw.      4.  The  Compass-saw.  5.    The 

Groove-saw  -  85 

II.    The  Axe  87 

III.  The  Knife  88 

IV.  The  Draw-knife  89 
V.    Chisels,  Gouges,  Carving  tools,  &c.  89 

1.  The  Firmer-chisel,  and  the  Mortise-chisel  90 

2.  Gouges  91 

3.  The  Spoon-gouge  and  the  Spoon-iron  92 

4.  Carving  tools    -  92 
VL    Planes  93 

1.  Planes  with  flat  soles  : — 

1.    The   Jack-plane.     2.    The  Trying-plane. 

3.  The  Smoothing-plane.  4.  The  Rebate-plane          98 

2.  Planes  for  the  dressing  of  curved  surfaces  : — 

1.  The  Round.    2.  The  Hollow.    3.  The  Com- 
pass-plane -  101 

3.  The  Old  Woman's  Tooth-plane,  and  the  Dove-tail 

Filletster  102 


CONTENTS.  ix. 

4.  The  Plough  104 

5.  The  Iron  Spokeshave  104 
VII.    Files        -  105 

VIII.    Methods  of  finishing  work  106 

1.  The  Scraper.    2.  Sandpaper. 

IX.     The  Brace  and  Bits.  108 

1.  The  Shell-bit.    2.  The  Centre-bit. 
X.    The  Mallet,  the  Hammer,  the  Hand-vice,  Pincers,  and 

Screwdriver       -  112 

E.  THE  GRINDING  AND  SHARPENING  OP  TOOLS  115 

F.  THE  TOOL  CUPBOARD    -  118 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Jointing. 

A.  Glueing    -  119 

B.  Nailing  123 

C.  Screwing  together    -  124 

D.  Jointing  by  means  of  the  formation  of  the  parts  of  the  joint        125 

CHAPTER  V. 

I.    The  Exercises  126 

Plates  illustrating  various  positions,  etc.  171 

II.     The  High  School  Series  of  Models  -         196 


List  of  tools  required  for  different  numbers  of  pupils  204 

Index  -  -  205 


FIRST   CHAPTER. 

Introductory    Remarks. 

Educational   Slojd. 

By  educational  slojd  is  meant  the  application  of  slojd  to 
educational  purposes.  Slojd  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
work  of  the  artisan  —  a  mistake  which  may  easily  happen  if 
the  distinction  is  not  sufficiently  strongly  emphasized.  Speak- 
ing generally,  the  'slojder'  does  not  practise  his  art  as  a  trade, 
but  merely  as  a  change  from  some  other  employment  ;  and  in 
the  nature  of  the  articles  produced,  in  the  tools  used  in  their 
production,  in  the  manner  of  executing  the  work,  etc.,  slojd 
and  the  work  of  the  artisan  differ  very  decidedly  the  one 
from  the  other.  Slojd  is  much  better  adapted  to  be  a  means 
of  education,  because  purely  economical  considerations  do  not 
come  forward  so  prominently  as  must  be  the  case  with  work 
undertaken  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 

Educational  slojd  differs  from  so-called  practical  slojd,  in- 
asmuch  as  in  the  latter,  importance  is  attached  to  the  work:  in 

practical 

the  former,  on  the  contrary,  to  the  worker.  It  must,  however,  siejd* 
be  strongly  emphasized  that  the  two  terms,  educational  and 
practical,  ought  in  no  way  to  be  considered  antagonistic  to 
each  other,  as  frequently  happens  in  popular  language  ;  for, 
from  the  strictly  educational  point  of  view,  whatever  is  educa- 
tionally right  must  also  be  practical,  and  vice  versa.  When 
the  educational  and  the  practical  come  into  conflict,  the  cause 
is  always  to  be  found  in  the  pressure  of  adventitious  circum- 
stances, e.g.,  the  number  of  pupils,  the  nature  of  the  premises, 
and,  above  all,  pecuniary  resources,  etc.  To  make  educational 
theory  and  practice  coincide  is  an  ideal  towards  which  every 
teacher  must  strive.  One  man,  perhaps,  may  be  able  to  come 


twnal  and 


2  INTRODUCTORY     REMARKS. 

nearer  to  this  common  ideal  than  another,  but  everyone,  as  he 
runs  his  course,  must  have  this  goal  clearly  in  view,  and  in 
every  unavoidable  compromise  he  must  endeavour  to  make- 
what  ought  to  be  done  and  what  can  be  done  come  as  close 
together  as  possible. 

Thtaimo/     What,  then,  is  the  aim  of  educational  slojd  ?  To  utilise,  as  is 
«*««»««>»•  suggested  above,  the  educative  force  which  lies  in  rightly 

at  $16 jd.  •  «-• 

directed  bodily  labour,  as  a  means  of  developing  in  the  pupils 
physical  and  mental  powers  which  will  be  a  sure  and  evident 
gain  to  them  for  life.  Views  may  differ  as  to  what  is  to  be 
understood  by  a  "  cultured  "  or  an  "  educated  "  man,  but  how- 
ever far  apart  in  other  respects  these  views  may  lie,  they  all 
have  at  least  one  thing  in  common,  i.e.,  that  this  much  dis- 
puted culture  always  appears  in  its  possessors  in  the  form  of 
certain  faculties,  and  that  therefore  the  development  of  faculty, 
so  far  as  this  can  be  directed  for  good,  must  enter  into  all 
educational  efforts.  This  being  the  case,  the  influence  of  slojd 
is  cultivating  and  educative,  just  in  the  same  degree  as  by  its 
means  certain  faculties  of  true  value  for  life  reach  a  develop- 
ment which  could  not  be  attained  otherwise,  or,  at  least,  not 
in  the  same  degree.  Educational  slojd,  accordingly,  seeks  to 
work  on  lines  which  shall  insure,  during  and  by  means  of  the 
exercise  it  affords,  the  development  of  the  pupil  in  certain 
definite  directions.  These  are  of  various  kinds.  As  the  more 
important,  it  is  usual  to  bring  forward :  pleasure  in  bodily 
labour,  and  respect  for  it,  habits  of  independence,  order, 
accuracy,  attention  and  industry,  increase  of  physical 
Rtrength,  development  of  the  power  of  observation  in  the  eye, 
and  of  execution  in  the  hand.  Educational  slojd  has  also 
in  view  the  development  of  mental  power,  or,  in  other  words, 
is  disciplinary  in  its  aim. 

The  Teacher  of  Educational  Slojd. 

The  quali- 

^lired       That  no  one  can  teach  what  he  does  not  know  himself  is  a 
Tether,     proposition  the  validity  of  which  cannot  be  called  in  question. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


It  is  equally  incontestable  that  it  is  by  no  means  sufficient  to 
be  in  possession  of  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  and  dex- 
terity in  order  to  follow  with  success  the  important  and 
responsible  calling  of  a  teacher.  Teaching  is  an  art  quite  as 
difficult  as  any  other,  and  for  its  practice  certain  qualifica- 
tions are  demanded  which  are  far  from  being  in  the  possession 
of  all.  The  teacher  must  not  only  know  what  he  has  to 
communicate,  but  also  how  he  ought  to  do  it.  Nor  is  this 
all ;  for  if  all  instruction  is  in  reality  to  be  education,  the 
teacher  must  rise  from  the  instructor  to  the  educator;  he 
must  not  only  understand  how  to  impart  knowledge  and 
dexterity,  but  also  how  to  impart  both  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  make  for  the  mental  development  of  the  pupil,  especially 
with  regard  to  moral  training.  But  as  we  cannot  give  to 
others  what  we  do  not  ourselves  possess,  it  must  necessarily 
follow  that  only  he  who  is  himself  educated  can  have  an 
educative  influence  over  another.  Therefore,  exactly  in  pro- 
portion to  the  educative  aim  of  the  teacher  does  his  person- 
ality enter  as  an  important  factor  into  the  work  of  instruction. 
Now,  since  slojd  is  to  be  regarded  more  as  a  means  of  education 
than  a  subject  of  instruction,  in  the  common  acceptation  of 
the  term,  the  first  demand  of  all  made  upon  the  teacher  who 
undertakes  it  must  be  that  he  should  feel  himself  to  be  an 
educator,  and  strive  without  ceasing  to  improve  himself  as 
such.  This,  however,  is  not  sufficient.  To  be  a  teacher  of 
educational  slojd,  it  is  necessary  to  be  familiar  with  its  aims, 
and  with  the  means  by  which  these  are  to  be  attained.  One 
of  these  means  is  the  possession  of  what  is  called  technical 
dexterity,  i.e.,  dexterity  in  the  right  use  of  tools,  and  in  the 
accurate  production,  by  their  means,  of  articles  involving  the 
exercises  required  by  the  particular  kind  of  slojd  in  question. 
The  importance  of  this  dexterity  must  neither  be  over-esti- 
mated nor  undervalued.  Unfortunately  one  or  other  of  these 
errors  is  frequently  committed.  On  the  one  hand  it  is 
maintained  that  if  a  person  can  only  prove  that  he  possesses  Technical 
technical  dexterity  in  sufficient  degree,  i.e.,  if  he  himself  can  dexterity- 


4  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

produce  good  work,  lie  thereby  fulfils  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant requirements  of  a  good  slqjd  teacher.  From  this  point  of 
view  the  skilful  artisan  or  "Slqjder"  would  be  the  best 
teacher  of  slqjd,  because  he  can  with  justice  be  held  to  possess 
the  best  technical  qualifications.  Past  experience,  however, 
has»shown  that,  as  a  rule,  the  skilful  artisan  or  "  slqjder  "  is 
not  the  best  person  to  fill  the  responsible  post  of  the  slqjd 
teacher.  This  follows  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case.  The 
artisan  has  acquired  his  technical  dexterity  in  a  totally  different 
way,  and  for  a  totally  different  purpose,  from  what  is  required 
in  educational  slqjd.  Technical  dexterity  is  the  principal  thing 
with  him.  It  is  before  every  other  consideration  a  source  of 
income.  In  educational  slqjd,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be 
regarded  only  as  one  means  among  many  whereby  the 
teacher  is  able  to  bring  an  educative  influence  to  bear  on  the 
.  pupils.  The  artisan  who  has  great  technical  skill  is  too  often 
at  a  teacher  tempted  while  teaching  to  use  this  skill  in  a  way  which  may 
•fsufl.  ke  £or  ^e  advantage  of  the  work  with  which  the  pupil  is 
occupied,  but  is  certainly  not  for  the  advantage  of  the  pupil 
himself.  His  "  instruction  "  consists  not  infrequently  of  work 
which  he  does  for  the  pupil,  with  results  which  are  excellent 
from  the  economical  point  of  view,  but  which  are  very 
objectionable  in  their  educational  aspect.  Partly  for  this 
reason  and  partly  because  the  artisan  often  does  not  under- 
stand how  to  maintain  really  good  discipline  with  children  ; 
and  because,  moreover,  he  is  unacquainted  with  the  general 
principles  which  apply  to  all  instruction,  it  has  been  remarked, 
that  where  instruction  in  slqjd  is  concerned,  even  a  very 
capable  artisan  often  falls  far  behind  the  results  attained  by 
those  who  are  in  his  opinion  little  more  than  bunglers,  and 
who  may  be  far  inferior  to  him  in  technical  dexterity.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  by  no  means  intended  to  convey  the  idea 

that  the  skilled  artisan  may  not  be  a  good  teacher  of  slqjd 

provided  he  understands  the  difference  between  slqjd  and  his 
trade,  and  is  in  possession  of  the  other  necessary  qualifications 
—but  it  is  maintained  that  in  such  a  case  it  is  less  because 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  5 

he  is  an  artisan  than  in  spite  of  it,  for  the  first  condition  is 
that  he  must  renounce  the  traditions  of  his  craft,  and  become 
penetrated  by  educational  ideas. 

But  the  truth  here,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  lies  between 
the  two  extremes.  It  is  as  hurtful  to  under-estimate  tech- 
nical skill  as  it  is  to  over-estimate  it.  Therefore,  let  no 
teacher  imagine  that  he  can  successfully  undertake  instruc-  under- 
tion  in  slojd  with  slight  and  superficial  knowledge  on  the  l^]™"*" 
purely  technical  side.  It  will  soon  and  surely  be  made  clear  importance 
to  him  that  this  is  not  the  case.  If  he  has  not  himself  the  d^-i^T 
necessary  technical  dexterity  for  his  purpose,  it  will  be 
difficult,  indeed  almost  impossible,  for  him  to  make  clear  to 
his  pupils  how  they  are  to  handle  their  tools  and  execute  the 
work  prescribed.  Neither  will  he  be  able  in  an  efficient  way 
to  supervise  their  work  and  criticise  the  quality  of  what  they 
produce.  The  feeling  of  self-mastery  which  is  so  essential 
for  the  teacher  when  he  stands  face  to  face  with  his  pupils, 
forsakes  him,  and  the  educative  results  which  he  intends  to 
attain  by  means  of  slojd  are  diminished  in  proportion.  It  is 
most  important  that  this  should  be  laid  down  once  for  all, 
because  some  teachers  possibly  imagine  that  the  technical 
skill  necessary  for  teaching  may  be  obtained  by  attending 
one  or  two  slojd  courses.  This  is  by  no  means  the  case,  and 
the  organisers  of  such  slojd  courses  are  the  first  to  understand 
and  to  insist  upon  the  fact,  that  they  can  only  aim  at  laying 
a  foundation  on  which  students  may  afterwards  build  by 
means  of  independent  work.  Just  as  little  as  one  can  learn 
to  play  on  any  instrument  by  merely  taking  lessons  for  a 
given  time  from  a  music  teacher,  can  skill  in  the  management 
of  tools  be  acquired  and  maintained  without  continuous  and 
earnest  practice.  The  teacher  who  feels  real  interest  in  slojd 
must  therefore,  on  his  own  account,  endeavour  to  improve  in 
respect  of  technical  skill,  and  this  will  prove  a  two-fold  gain, 
because  the  bodily  exercise  affords  a  healthy  change  from  the 
mental  work  with  which  the  time  of  the  teacher  is  chiefly 
filled. 


6  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

To  summarise  what  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing:  the 
teacher  of  educational  slojd  must  above  all  things  have  the 
habit  of  mind  which  is  indispensable  for  the  right  perform- 
ance of  the  teacher's  work ;  his  personality  must  be  such  as 
renders  him  fit  to  be  a  teacher  ;  he  must  know  the  objects  of 
educational  slojd  and  the  means  by  which  they  are  to  be 
attained ;  and  finally,  he  ought  to  have  sufficient  dexterity  to 
handle  the  tools  and  to  execute  accurately  the  work  which  is 
incidental  to  the  course  of  instruction.  These  are  the  de- 
mands made  on  him ;  may  he  strive  to  meet  them. 

The  special  kind  of  Slojd  recommended. 

Various  materials,  e.g.,  wax,  clay,  paper,  pasteboard,  wood, 
metal,  &c.,  may  be  used  in  educational  slojd.  Wood,  however, 
is  for  several  reasons  the  most  suitable  material ;  hence  ^vood- 
slojd  has  been  the  most  popular  of  all,  both  in  schools  and 
for  private  instruction.  As  the  name  implies,  wood-slojd 
means  "slo'jding"  in  wood.  This,  again,  includes  several 
different  kinds  of  work.  Amongst  these,  however,  it  is  the 
5^  so-called  slojd-carpentry  which  best  fulfils  the  conditions 
carpentry,  required  when  instruction  in  slojd  is  given  with  educational 
ends  in  view.  It  is  adapted  to  the  mental  and  physical 
powers  of  children.  By  enabling  them  to  make  a  number  of 
generally  useful  articles,  it  awakens  and  sustains  genuine 
interest.  It  encourages  order  and  accuracy,  and  it  is  com- 
patible with  cleanliness  and  tidiness.  Further,  it  cultivates 
the  sense  of  form  more  completely  than  instruction  in  drawing 
does,  and,  like  gymnastics  and  free  play,  it  has  a  good  in- 
fluence upon  the  health  of  the  body,  and  consequently  upon 
that  of  the  mind.  Additional  advantages  are,  that  it  is 
excellently  adapted  for  methodical  arrangement,  comprising 
as  it  does  a  great  number  of  exercises  of  varying  degrees  of 
difficulty,  some  of  which  are  very  easy ;  and  that  it  gives  a 
considerable  degree  of  general  dexterity  by  means  of  the 
many  different  tools  and  manual  operations  which  it  intro- 
duces. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


We  must  not  confound  slojd-carpentry  with  the  work  done  Difference 
by  the  carpenter,  properly  so-called.     This  is  the  more  neces- 
sary  because  great  confusion  of  ideas  prevails  on  the  subject ; 
not  least,   remarkably  enough,  amongst  those  who  are  in- 
terested  in  slojd,  or  give  instruction  in  it. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  although  slojd-carpentry 
and  ordinary  carpentry  have  something  in  common,  inasmuch 
as  the  same  raw  material  (wood)  is  employed,  and  to  some 
extent  the  same  or  similar  tools  are  used,  yet  they  differ  one 
from  the  other  in  several  very  important  respects.  For 
example,  the  articles  made  in  slojd-carpentry  are  in  many 
cases  quite  different  from  those  which  fall  within  the  province 
of  the  carpenter.  The  articles  made  in  slojd-carpentry  are 
differentiated  partly  by  their  smaller  size,  for  the  articles 
made  in  workshops  are  generally  much  larger ;  partly  by 
their  form,  for  they  are  often  bounded  by  variously  curved 
outlines,  whilst  articles  made  by  the  carpenter  are  generally 
rectangular  or  cylindrical.  This  is  especially  shown  in  the 
case  of  the  many  different  kinds  of  spoons,  ladles,  scoops, 
handles,  &c.,  &c.,  which  form  such  an  important  element  in 
slojd-carpentry. 

Further,  though  many  tools  are  common  to  both  kinds  of 
work,  there  are  also  considerable  differences  in  this  respect. 
Several  tools  which  are  seldom  or  never  used  in  the  car- 
penter's workshop,  e.g.,  the  axe,  the  draw-knife,  and  the 
spoon-iron,  occupy  an  important  place  in  slojd-carpentry. 

The  most  characteristic  tool  in  slojd-carpentry  is,  however, 
the  knife,  and  by  the  use  of  this,  his  chief  instrument,  the 
slojder  may  always  be  distinguished  from  the  carpenter, 
whose  favourite  tool  is  the  chisel,  and  who,  as  seldom  as  pos- 
sible, and  never  willingly,  takes  the  knife  in  his  hand.  In 
carpentry,  on  the  other  hand,  use  is  made  of  a  number  of 
tools  more  or  less  necessary,  which  are  quite  unknown  to  the 
slojder,  who  works  for  the  most  part  under  more  primitive 
conditions.  Distinct  differences  can  also  be  pointed  out  in 
the  manner  of  executing  the  work  (for  while  division  of 


g  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

labour  is  practised  in  carpentry,  it  is  not  permitted  in  slojd} 
and  in  the  manner  of  using  the  tools.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  foreo-oing  that  much  may  pass  under  the  name  of  instruc- 
tion in  slojd  which,  properly  speaking,  ought  simply  to  be 
called  instruction  in  carpentry.  It  is  most  important  that 
this  distinction  should  be  maintained,  because  otherwise  edu- 
cational slojd  will  by  degrees  be  lost  in  instruction  in  car- 
pentry as  a  trade. 

In  some  schools  where  slojd  is  taught  we  find  turning  and 
wood-carving  as  well  as  slojd-carpentry.     This,  however,  is 
not  so  common  now  as  it  was  a  few  years  ago.     People  seem 
to  be  coming  more  and  more  to  the  conclusion  that  both  occu- 
pations are  more  suitable  for  the  home  than  for  the  school. 
Neither  of  them  is  to  be  commended  from  the  hygienic  point 
of  view.     As  regards  turning,  the  difficulty   of   procuring 
suitable  turning-lathes  presents  in  many  schools  a  serious 
obstacle  to  its  general  use ;  whilst  the  necessity  of  perform- 
ing preliminary  exercises,  apart  from  the  actual  objects  made 
(a  proceeding  of  very  doubtful  educational  value)  places 
turning  quite  in  the  shade  as  compared  with  slojd-carpentry. 
Wood  carving,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  involve  that 
energetic  bodily  labour  which  is  of  such  great  importance  in 
connection   with    educational   slojd.     Again,   wood-carving, 
classed  as  it  is  with  the  so-called  "finer"  kinds  of  manual 
work,  has  a  tendency  to  intensify  in  the  child  that  contempt 
for  rough  bodily  labour  which  has  already  unfortunately 
done  so  much  social  harm.     The  danger  of  this  is  however 
greatest  when  the  children  are  imprudently  permitted  to 
ornament  objects  which  they  have  not  made.     When  wood- 
carving  is  used,  not  as  a  separate  kind  of  slojd,  but  in  order 
to  complete  slojd-carpentry,  and  when  ornamentation  is  only 
allowed  after  the  children  are  able  in  a  satisfactory  way  to 
execute  the  articles  to  be  embellished  by  its  means,  the  dis- 
advantages are  minimised. 


INTRODUCTORY     REMARKS. 


Method. 

Systematic   action,   directed   towards   an   end,  is  termed  The 
method.     Every  form  of  human  activity,  in.  so  far  as  it  is  meanina  °f 

.  .  -IT    method. 

concerned  with  the  attainment  of  a  definite  preconceived  end, 
must  therefore  be  regulated  according  to  method,  and  this 
universally  applicable  rule  holds  good  in  the  case  of  that 
activity  which  is  directed  towards  instruction  and  education. 
Hence  great  importance  has  always  been  attached  to  methods 
of  instruction.  In  fact,  in  many  cases  too  much  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  study  of  special  methods.  Not  that  we 
agree  with  those  who,  by  strange  confusion  of  ideas,  regard 
the  rules  of  scientific  method  as  opposed  to  practice,  saying : — 
"  We  are  practical  people,  and  therefore  we  mean  to  teach  in 
our  own  practical  way,  not  to  follow  the  theoretical  methods 
of  others."  They  thereby  show  that  they  do  not  understand 
how,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  there  can  be  only  one 
really  practical  mode  of  procedure,  and  that  is  the  method 
which  is  in  harmony  with  sound  theory,and  that  any  other  way 
of  going  to  work  must  be  more  or  less  unpractical.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  teachers  misunder- 
stand the  true  significance  of  method  to  such  a  degree  that  it 
becomes  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  work.  They  forget 
that,  strictly  speaking,  method  is  merely  a  tool — though  a  very 
necessary  one — in  the  hand  of  the  teacher ;  and  that,  just  as 
little  as  a  tool  can  execute  a  piece  of  work  of  its  own  accord, 
just  so  little  can  method  ever  be  the  chief  factor  in  instruc- 
tion. The  teacher's  power  to  apply  method  is  the  determining 
factor.  A  good  method  in  the  hands  of  a  truly  capable 
teacher  will  always  give  better  results  than  a  bad  method. 
The  best  method  is  of  comparatively  little  value  if  the  teacher 
is  inefficient. 

It  will  now  be  clear  that  slojd,  whether  regarded  as  a 
subject  of  school  instruction  in  the  usual  sense,  or  as  a  purely 
disciplinary  subject,  must  be  treated  according  to  rules  of 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


method.  The  ordinary  rules  of  method  can  be  applied  to  it ; 
and  chief  amongst  them  those  which  are  generally  regarded 
as  fundamental  principles,  namely,  that  instruction  shall 
proceed  gradually  from  the  more  easy  to  the  more  difficult, 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  and  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  it  being  always  understood  that  the  starting  point 
is  sufficiently  easy,  simple,  and  well-known. 

In  drawing  up  a  system  of  method  in  slojd  teaching  it  is 
difficult  to  find  any  fully  logical  principle  of  arrangement 
elsewhere  than  in  the  exercises.  By  exercises  in  this 
connection  is  to  be  understood  that  manipulation  of  the 
materials  by  means  of  one  tool  or  more  in  a  definite  way, 
for  a  definite  object.  Now  these  exercises  can  be  arranged 
in  a  series,  in  conformity  with  the  rules  given  above.  This 
could  not  be  done  so  easily  if  the  tools  themselves  constituted 
the  principle  of  arrangement,  because,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  two 
tools,  some  exercises  performed  with  the  one  may  be  easier, 
and  some  on  the  contrary  may  be  more  difficult,  than  the 
exercises  which  are  performed  with  the  other.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  models  cannot  constitute  the  principle  of  arrange- 
ment, because  they  are  merely  the  incidental  expressions  of 
the  exercises.  When,  therefore,  it  is  said  that  the  models  in  a 
series  are  graded  from  the  more  easy  to  the  more  difficult,  it 
is  meant  that  the  exercises  occurring  in  these  models  proceed 
in  this  way.  The  exercises  themselves  are  partly  simple, 
partly  complex :  the  latter  consisting  of  two  or  more  simple 
exercises  in  combination.  The  given  number  of  exercises 
entering  into  the  work  of  special  kinds  of  slojd  depends 
more  or  less  upon  opinion,  for  it  often  happens  that  what  is 
regarded  as  one  exercise  might  be  analysed  into  two  or  more, 
or  might  be  considered  as  a  part  of  a  more  complex  exercise. 
Hence  the  eighty-eight  exercises  in  slb'jd-carpentry  enu- 
merated further  on,  might  easily  be  increased  or  decreased  in 
number,  depending  entirely  upon  how  far  it  is  considered 
advisable  to  carry  this  analysis  or  synthesis. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  11 

The  exercises,  their  number,  their  names,  and  their  order  M ethod  0/ 
are  not,  however,  the  only  factors  which  determine  method  te™hinn 
in  slojd.  The  way  in  which  they  should  be  taught  must  be  exercises. 
included.  There  are  different  modes  of  procedure.  One  of 
these  is  to  teach  the  exercises  one  after  the  other,  simply  as 
isolated  or  "  abstract "  exercises,  until  they  have  all  been  per- 
formed. This  may  be  justified  from  the  point  of  view  of 
method  in  general,  but  opinions  may  differ,  not  to  put  it  too 
strongly,  as  to  its  educational  soundness.  Another  mode  of 
procedure  is  to  apply  each  exercise,  after  it  has  been  practised 
separately  or  in  the  abstract,  in  the  construction  of  a  given 
object  or  model.  The  exercises  themselves  are  thus  given  as 
preliminary  practice.  This,  though  certainly  a  step  in  the 
right  direction,  does  not  fully  satisfy  the  demands  of  educa. 
tional  method,  which  requires  us  to  proceed  from  the  con- 
crete to  the  abstract,  and  not  vice  versa  ;  and,  moreover,  such 
unnecessarily  round-about  methods  cause  the  loss  of  valuable 
time  which  might  be  better  employed.  Method  in  slojd  only 
becomes  educationally  sound  when  the  pupil,  by  constructing 
objects  which  can  be  used  in  everyday  life,  acquires  dexterity 
in  performing  the  exercises  as  they  occur.  To  take  an  illus- 
tration from  language  teaching,  the  first  mode  of  procedure 
corresponds  to  the  learning  of  abstractions  in  the  form  of 
grammatical  rules ;  the  second  corresponds  to  the  application 
of  these  rules  in  sentences  after  they  have  been  learned ;  the 
third  corresponds  to  the  method  by  which  the  pupil  is  led  up, 
through  sentences  or  combinations  of  sentences,  to  the  laws 
of  language  which  in  them  find  expression. 

There  are,  however,  other  fundamental  principles  which  Arrange- 
must  be  adhered  to  in  arranging  a  series  of  models  in  such  a  ment°fa 

0      °  series  of 

way  that  the  exercises  involved  shall  follow  each  other  in  models. 
methodical  order.  The  general  nature  of  the  models  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  exercises  ought  to  be  introduced  in  them 
must  be  considered.  In  choosing  a  series  of  models  the  best 
plan  is  undoubtedly  to  consider  local  conditions,  and  endeavour 
to  make  it  exactly  representative  of  articles  which  can  be 


12  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

used  in  the  homes  of  the  pupils.     By  this  means  interest  in 
the  instruction  given  is  better  aroused  and  maintained,  not 
only  in  the  pupils,  but— and  this  is  quite  as  important— m  the 
parents,  and  thus  the  bond  between  the  school  and  the  home 
is  strengthened .«    Opinion  is  now  probably  almost  unanimous 
that  all  articles  of  luxury  should  be  excluded.    (Such  articles, 
however,  are  by  no  means  synonymous  with  articles  intrinsi- 
cally beautiful.)     The  interest  of  the  pupils  is  also  heightened 
if  the  first  articles  presented  to  them  are  no  larger  or  more 
difficult  than  can  be  executed  satisfactorily  in  a  comparatively 
short  time.    The  first  models  ought,  on  this  account,  to  include 
few  exercises ;  and  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that, 
as  far  as  possible,  each  successive  model  should  include  only 
one  new  exercise,  or  two  at  the  most.     In  the  arrangement 
of  the  series,  attention  must  also  be  paid  to  alternation  in  the 
form  of  the  models.    The  articles  which  are  included  in  slojd- 
carpentry  consist  partly  of  "  modelled  "  articles  bounded  by 
curved  surfaces,  and  partly  of  rectangular  articles  bounded 
principally  by  plane  surfaces.    It  is  very  important  that  any 
arrangement  of  models  in  a  series  should  present  good  alter- 
nation between  these  two  kinds,  and,  generally  speaking,  a 
modelled  object  should  follow  a  rectangular  object,  and  vice 
versa.     As  a  result,  each  model  acquires  to  some  extent  the 

*  As  some  confusion  of  ideas  appears  to  prevail  in  England  between  the 
importance  of  the  educational  principles  on  which  slojd  is  based,  and  the 
mo'lels  in  whicli  these  principles  are  exemplified,  it  seems  desirable  to  draw  the 
attention  of  readers  to  this  passage.  It  indicates  sufficiently  clearly  that,  in 
whatever  country  Swedish  slojd  may  be  adopted,  the  more  familiar  and  the 
more  serviceable  the  articles  made  are  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  country,  the 
more  nearly  will  the  method  of  teaching  conform  to  one  of  the  great  principles 
of  educational  slojd,  viz. :  that  the  pupil's  interest  shall  be  excited  and  sustained 
by  the  making  of  articles  which  he  himself  or  the  other  members  of  his 
family  can  use.  Many  of  the  models  at  Nails  have,  within  the  last  year  or  two, 
been  either  modified  or  changed  entirely  in  order  to  render  them  suitable  for 
English  students,  and  it  is  incumbent  upon  every  slojd  teacher  to  make  his  own 
series  of  models  conform  to  the  ideas  and  requirements  of  the  people  among 
whom  he  teaches,  keeping  in  view  the  general  principles  of  method  which  would 
apply  to  any  series. — Taa. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  13 

charm  of  novelty,  and  this  still  further  increases  in  the  pupils 
that  interest  for  their  work  which  is  of  the  very  greatest 
importance  as  regards  the  educational  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  slojd. 

The  manner  in  which  the  details  and  finished  appearance  rnt 
of  the  objects  he  is  to  execute  are  made  clear  to  the  pupil,  ™*ureo 
must  be  included  within  the  province  of  method.  It  is  instruction. 
assumed  that  in  this,  as  in  all  other  instruction,  it  is  of  the 
highest  importance  that  the  teacher  strives  to  make  his 
teaching  as  intuitional  as  possible.  To  this  end,  in  the 
elementary  stages,  the  models  should  always  be  executed 
after  drawings  and  models,  and  in  the  first  instance  invariably 
after  models  which  are  placed  before  the  pupils  for  accurate 
imitation. 

As,  however,  it  has  been  proved  to  be  difficult,  in  many 
cases  indeed  almost  impossible,  to  preserve  even  a  well-exe- 
cuted wooden  model  in  its  original  shape  and  size,  and  as,  for 
other  reasons,  it  is  highly  advantageous  to  connect  instruction 
in  slojd  with  instruction  in  drawing,  the  model  should  be 
copied  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible  by  the  aid  of  geo- 
metrical constructions,  sufficiently  simple  to  require  in-  the 
pupil  only  a  slight  acquaintance  with  geometrical  drawing. 
In  addition  to  this  the  most  important  measurements  of  the 
model's  dimensions  should  be  given,  in  order  that  the  pupil 
may  make  use  of  his  rule  or  metre-measure.*  By  degrees 
drawings  in  perspective  and  projections  may  be  introduced 
as  patterns  together  with  the  model;  and  finally,  when  the 
pupil  has  reached  the  highest  stage,  and  has  attained  suffi- 
cient dexterity  in  slojd  and  in  the  interpretation  of  a  drawing, 
the  model  may  even  be  taken  away,  and  the  work  executed 

*  As  the  metrical  system  of  measurement  admits  of  greater  exactness  than 
our  English  system,  and  as  it  seems  desirable  to  accustom  English  children  to 
its  use,  teachers  of  slojd  are  strongly  advised  to  adopt  it  in  connection  with  the 
dimensions  of  the  models.  No  difficulty  need  be  anticipated.  It  has  been 
found  that,  in  cases  where  children  were  permitted  to  use  either  their  English 
foot-rule  or  the  metre-measure,  they  invariably  preferred  the  latter. — TKS. 


14  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

after  a  drawing  only.     This  may  be  regarded  as  the  final 
aim  in  elementary  instruction  in  slb'jd. 

It  is  an  essential  condition  of  any  method  of  instruction 
in  educational  slb'jd,  that  the  work  of  the  pupils  shall  be 
independently  and  accurately  executed,  for  only  thus  can 
habits  of  self-reliance,  order,  and  accuracy,  so  important  in 
the  formation  of  character,  be  developed.  In  order  that  self- 
reliance  may  be  developed,  the  teacher  must  guard  himself 
against  giving  more  help  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  whether 
this  help  consists  in  explaining  the  best  way  of  doing  the  work, 
or  in  doing  the  work  instead  of  the  pupil.  As  regards  the 
latter,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  lay  down,  as  a  general  rule, 
that  he  never  should  touch  the  pupil's  work,  for  only  by  this 
means  can  he  avoid  the  temptation,  to  which  unfortunately 
many  teachers  have  succumbed,  to  execute  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  work  instead  of  the  pupil.  At  the  same  time  he 
must  remember  that  it  is  also  hurtful  to  the  pupil,  and  that 
it  deprives  his  instruction  of  considerable  educational  value, 
if  by  unnecessary  explanations  he  hinders  the  pupil  from 
using  his  own  judgment  to  discover  the  right  way.  The 
teacher's  art  in  educational  slb'jd  consists  essentially  in  being 
as  passive  and  unobtrusive  as  possible,  while  the  pupil  is 
actively  exercising  both  head  and  hand.  Only  in  this  way 
can  the  feeling  of  self-reliance  arise  and  gain  strength. 
Let  the  teacher  content  himself  with  pointing  out  the  way, 
and  watching  that  the  pupil  walks  in  it.  Let  him  as  much 
as  possible  refrain  from  leading  where  this  is  unnecessary 
and,  it  may  be,  hurtful. 

Accuracy.  In  order  to  develop  the  habit  of  accuracy  in  the  pupil  by 
means  of  slb'jd,  it  is  essential  that  he  should  make  his 
model  as  nearly  as  possible  an  exact  likeness  of  his  pattern, 
or — when  the  model  has  changed  in  shape  and  size — an 
exact  copy  of  what  it  ought  to  be,  as  indicated  by  the 
geometrical  construction,  or  complete  drawing  and  given 
measurements.  We  very  often  hear  people  say  that  it  is 
quite  unnecessary  to  be  so  particular  with  the  work,  since, 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  15 

e.g.,  a  flower-stick  can  be  quite  as  serviceable  whether  it  is  a 
little  shorter  or  a  little  longer.  This  is  perfectly  true  on  the 
assumption  that  the  making  of  a  serviceable  flower-stick  is 
our  chief  end  in  making  it.  In  educational  slojd,  however, 
the  principal  object  is  not  the  article  made,  but  the  mental 
and  physical  benefits  which  accrue  to  the  pupil  by  means  of 
the  work.  In  this  case  it  cannot  be  unimportant  that  he 
should  be  exercised  in  the  endeavour  to  execute  something 
as  well  and  as  accurately  as  he  is  able  to  do  it.  For  in  this 
way  his  natural  disposition  to  work  carelessly  is  checked, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  degree  of  accuracy  to  which  he  is 
gradually  accustomed  will  be  of  great  advantage  farther  on 
in  the  series  of  models,  when  he  has  to  perform  such  opera- 
tions as  mortising,  grooving,  dovetailing,  &c.,  which  call  for 
no  inconsiderable  degree  of  accuracy  in  their  performance. 
Though  a  pen-holder  need  not  be  of  any  exact  size,  this  is  by 
no  means  the  case  with  the  joints  in  dovetailing;  and  in 
making  the  former  exact,  the  latter  operation  is  rendered  pos- 
sible, or  at  all  events  easier.  At  the  same  time,  we  must  not 
demand  of  the  pupil  work  which  is  absolutely  correct  in  all  its 
details,  for  this  clearly  lies  beyond  his  powers.  The  teacher 
must  exercise  his  "  tact "  as  an  educator  in  determining  the 
degree  of  accuracy  which  is  to  be  demanded  of  every  separate 
pupil  in  every  separate  model,  and  this  being  done,  the  teacher 
must  unhesitatingly  reject  the  articles  which  fail  to  come  up 
to  the  required  standard.  But  in  order  that  the  pupil  may 
not  be  disheartened  by  repeated  rejections,  it  is  advisable  not 
to  insist  on  the  repetition  of  the  same  model  more  than,  at 
the  outside,  three  consecutive  times.  If  the  pupil  fails  to 
succeed  the  third  time,  he  should  be  allowed  to  pass  on  to 
the  next  model,  and  not  required  to  return  to  the  one  he 
failed  to  make,  until  he  has  succeeded  in  making  the  other ; 
this  he  usually  does  easily  enough,  owing  to  the  increased 
facility  he  has  gained  by  practice.  If  the  pupil  is  permitted 
to  pass  over  a  model  altogether  without  bringing  it  up  to 
the  required  standard,  it  may  encourage  him  in  caprice,  and 


16  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

counteract  the  development  of  habits  of  perseverance,  the 
acquisition  of  which  is  of  such  great  importance  in  life. 
Further,  the  general  rule  should  be  strictly  observed  that 
every  article  is  to  be  executed  as  well  and  as  beautifully  as 
possible.  In  educational  slojd  it  is  much  more  important 
that  what  is  made  should  be  the  product  of  good  and 
conscientious  labour,  than  that  much  should  be  produced. 
Therefore,  whatever  bears  the  impress  of  carelessness  and 
haste  must  be  rejected  without  mercy,  lest  the  pupil  fall  into 
bad  habits,  and  the  educative  influences  of  slojd  be  weakened. 

individual       The  question   whether   individual   instruction    or    class - 
vttueiatr  teaching  should  be  adopted,  comes  also  under  the  head  of 

teaching,  method  in  slb'jd-teaching.  As  the  aim  in  educational  slojd 
is  totally  different  from  mere  mechanical  instruction  in  the 
art  of  using  tools  and  making  articles,  it  may  be  laid  down 
as  a  principle,  that  only  in  the  degree  in  which  the  personal 
influence  of  the  teacher  reaches  each  individual  pupil,  can 
his  influence  be  truly  educative.  And  as  human  beings 
differ  greatly  from  one  another  in  natural  disposition  and 
other  respects,  instruction,  in  order  to  reach  the  highest 
degree  of  educative  value,  must  be  specially  adapted  to  each 
individual.  It  is  as  easy  to  explain,  point  out,  lead,  and 
help  too  much  as  too  little,  and  thus  to  check  that  mental 
development  which  can  only  be  secured  by  systematic  well- 
balanced  effort.  This  is,  and  this  will  continue  to  be,  the 
disadvantage  of  class-teaching: — this  term  being  assumed 
to  mean,  instruction  during  which  all  the  pupils  taking  part 
in  the  lesson  have  their  attention  directed  at  the  same  time 
to  the  same  part  of  the  subject.  This  disadvantage  can 
never  be  lost  sight  of,  but  in  the  case  of  several  subjects  of 
instruction,  especially  the  purely  intellectual  subjects,  it  is 
counterbalanced  to  some  degree,  because,  by  means  of  class- 
teaching,  the  practical  benefit  is  gained  that  a  teacher  can 
teach  a  larger  number  of  pupils  than  he  could  teach  individ- 
ually. Slojd,  however,  does  not  belong  to  these  subjects, 
because  in  it  the  teacher's  powers  are  limited,  to  start  with, 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  17 

by  the  number  of  pupils  he  can  efficiently  supervise  at  work ; 
and  it  can  speedily  be  demonstrated  that  he  cannot,  in  class 
teaching,  supervise  more  than  by  individual  instruction, 
provided  that  in  each  case  equally  good  results  are  aimed  at. 
On  the  contrary,  he  may  find  that  he  cannot  supervise  so 
many.  Another  practical  objection  to  class-teaching  in  cases 
where  slb'jd  is  applied  to  educational  purposes,  is  the  impos- 
sibility of  keeping  the  class  together  in  the  execution  of  their 
work.  It  follows  either  that  the  more  backward  pupils 
scamp  their  work  or  are  allowed  to  pass  over  some  of  the 
models  in  the  series,  or  else  that  the  superior  pupils  are 
checked  in  their  progress,  and  thereby  prevented  from  doing 
as  many  exercises  as  they  otherwise  could  have  accomplished.* 
The  leading  question  of  method  in  educational  slojd 
teaching  ought  to  be  less  how  much,  or  how  many,  as  how 
well. 

The  Pupils. 

The  age  during  which  instruction  can  be  received  with  ad-  The  age  o/ 
vantage  in  any  subject  whatever  is  limited  downwards  as  well 
as  upwards  by  the  work  it  involves.  As  regards  slojd-car- 
pentry,  children  ought  to  have  attained  the  degree  of  develop- 
ment which  corresponds  roughly  to  10  or  11  years.  Other- 
wise they  cannot  be  expected  to  meet  the  demands  made  on 
the  spirit  of  self-reliance  during  work.  At  the  same  time,  as 
children  of  the  same  age  differ  greatly  in  point  of  development 
our  guiding  principle  should  not  be  the  date  of  birth,  but  the 
mental  and  physical  powers  which  the  child  has  at  command. 
What  one  child  of  nine  years  can  accomplish  with  ease  may  be 
beyond  the  powers  of  another  child  of  twelve.  As  regards 
the  upward  limit  of  age,  it  lies  considerably  beyond  school 
years. 

*  On  certain  occasions  it  is  advantageous  to  demand  the  attention  of  all  the 
pupils  at  one  time,  e.g.,  when  the  teacher  wishes  to  explain  the  properties  of  a 
tool  and  the  method  of  using  it,  or  wishes  to  examine  all  the  pupils  together. 
These,  however,  are  special  cases,  which  ought  to  be  quite  independent  of  the 
slojd-work  itself. 

B 


18  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

The  number  of  pupils  who  can  be  managed  individually 

•  •  j          VI  A    * 

her  o/ tu  ty  one  teacher  at  the  same  time  varies  considerably,  ana  is 
*"**'  influenced  partly  by  the  teacher's  general  efficiency,  partly 
by  his  special  efficiency,  and  partly  by  the  stage  at  which 
the  pupils  are.  The  teacher  who  is  unaccustomed  to  teach 
slojd  will  probably  be  unable  at  first  to  manage  with  ease 
more  than  from  6  to  8  pupils,  especially  if  they  are  beginners ; 
later  on  the  number  may  be  increased  to  12,  and  by  degrees, 
under  favourable  conditions,  to  15,  18,  or  at  most  20.*  No 
teacher,  however,  ought  to  let  his  desire  to  increase  the 
number  of  his  pupils  induce  him  to  take  more  at  one  time 
than  he  can  manage  in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  way. 

The  Time  given  to  Instruction. 

The  length        j±  slojd  lesson  ought  not  to  last  less  than  an  hour  and  a  half, 

mto'L'o/  or  more  than  two  hours  and  a  half.     It  ought,  if  possible,  to 

the  un<m*.   intervene  between  hours  devoted  to  intellectual  instruction, 

because  it  offers  a  wholesome  variety  for  mind  and  body. 

Slojd  by  artificial  light  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

It  is  desirable  that  every  pupil  should  receive  three  lessons 

a  week.     They  should  be  given  every  other  day,  and  if  the 

pupils  have  gymnastics  on  the  intervening  days,  it  will  secure, 

to  some  extent  at  least,  the  necessary  physical  exercise  on  a 

rational  basis. 

The  Slojd-room. 

Tke  use  of        Tjje  jayg  are  pagj.  -n  gwe(jen  at  least,  when  it  was  regarded 

thetctiool-  ii.. 

rwnjor  as  a  degradation  of  the  rooms  devoted  to  intellectual  instruc- 
tion to  use  them  for  slojd  teaching.  Since  "  practical "  slojd 
has  been  forced  to  make  way  for  educational  slojd,  and  the 
importance  of  the  latter  has  been  more  and  more  recognised, 
no  thoughtful  teacher  can  think  that  his  class-room  loses 
dignity  because  manual  labour  is  carried  on  in  it.  In  many 
schools  where  space  is  limited,  slojd  must,  at  first  at  least,  be 

*  This  has  been  proved  by  observations  made  in  the  elementary  schools  iu 
Stockholm. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 


19 


given  a  share  of  the  school-room.  Where  this  room  is  large 
enough,  and  where  the  slojd-teacher's  spirit  of  order  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  make  him  keep  his  department  always  tidy, 
this  combination  may  be  made  without  special  inconvenience. 
It  is  advisable  to  place  the  slojd-benches  and  the  tool-cup- 
board at  one  end  of  the  room.  The  removal  of  desks  to 
make  temporary  room  for  benches  should  only  be  permitted 
when  such  an  arrangement  is  unavoidable. 

The  use  of  the  school-room  for  the  double  purpose  of  in- 
tellectual work  and  slb'jd  is  not,  however,  to  be  recommended 
when  circumstances  permit  of  separate  rooms  being  fitted  up. 
Different  arrangements  are  required  for  the  two  branches  of 
instruction.  A  description  of  the  general  arrangement  re- 
quired in  a  room  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  educational 
slojd  carpentry  follows.  This  description  is  based  on  ex- 
perience gained  in  the  teaching  of  slojd  up  to  the  present 
time.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  in  this  connection, 
that  the  conditions  in  an  elementary  school  in  the  country 
and  in  a  school  in  a  large  town  or  in  closely-populated  manu- 
facturing districts,  vary  according  to  circumstances. 

As  regards  the  former,  we  must,  as  a  general  rule,  be  less  The  sigjd- 
exacting  in  our  demands ;   in  the  latter,  on  the  contrary, room  in 
arrangements  may  be  made  which  shall  meet  fully  the  educa-  country 
tional  requirements  of  a  good  slojd-room.     In  an  ordinary schcots- 
elementary  school  in  the  country,  where  there  may  not  be 
more  than  from  eight  to  twelve  pupils  requiring  instruction 
at  the  same  time,  a  slojd-room  measuring  16  ft.  in  length, 
13  ft.  in  breadth,  and  10  ft.  in  height,  will 'be  large  enough. 
It  should  be  situated  on  the  ground-floor.     The  walls  should 
be  wainscotted,  and  the  room  should  contain  three  or  four 
double,  or  six  or  eight  single,  benches ;  cupboards  for  tools, 
models,  and  finished  articles ;  a  grindstone,  a  chopping-block, 
and,  if  turnery  is  included  in  the  course,  also  a  turning-lathe. 
If  the  room  is  kept  locked  between  lessons,  the  tools  may  be 
disposed  round  the  walls  instead  of  being  kept  in  a  cupboard. 
The  wood  required  should  be  stored  in  some  place  adjoining. 


20  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

In  a  large  school,  where  opportunity  is  given  for  making 
the  arrangements  for  slojd  teaching  as  complete  as  possible, 
the  following  directions  may  be  found  useful  :— 

Situation.— The  slojd-room  (not  "work-shop")  should 
open  from  a  lobby  either  on  the  ground-floor  or  on  the  top 
storey.  It  should  never  be  situated  in  the  basement.  If  it 
is  on  the  ground  floor,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  as  far 
as  possible  from  the  other  school-rooms,  that  the  noise  may 
not  disturb  the  pupils  in  the  latter.  If  a  slojd-room  is  situ- 
ated above  a  school-room,  it  should  be  furnished  with  a  double 
floor,  with  an  intervening  layer  of  sawdust  to  deaden  the 
noise. 

Area. — To  accommodate  20  pupils  at  one  time,  the  room 
should  be  about  50  ft.  long  and  23  ft.  broad.  This  will  give 
adequate  space  for  20  separate  benches  (placed  in  5  rows),  a 
turning  lathe,  a  saw-bench,  grindstones,  chopping-blocks, 
cupboards  for  tools,  models,  and  finished  articles,  and  a  rack 
for  wood.  Wood  ought  not  to  be  suspended  from  the  roof  if 
this  can  be  avoided,  partly  because  it  is  unsightly,  and  partly 
because  it  gives  unnecessary  trouble.  The  space  between  the 
benches  ought  to  be  about  2i  ft. 

Height. — The  slojd-room  ought  to  be  from  12  ft.  to  15  ft. 
high. 

Windows. — The  slojd-room  should  be  well-lighted  by  large 
and  properly  placed  windows.  The  area  of  window  surface 
is  generally  reckoned  as  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  floor  area.  If 
the  slojd-room  is  on  the  ground  floor,  windows  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  placed  in  three  of  its  walls.  If  it  is  011  the  top 
storey  it  is  better  to  let  the  light  enter  by  sky-lights  than 
dormer  windows. 

The  Walls. — To  prevent  injury  to  the  walls  they  should  be 
lined  with  wood,  or  at  all  events  with  a  tolerably  high  waiiis- 
cotting.  The  doors  and  the  window-frames  should  be  painted, 
but  the  walls  need  only  be  varnished. 

Warming. — Where  there  is  no  central  system  of  heating, 


INTRODUCTORY     REMARKS,  21 

the  best  way  to  heat  the  slojd-room  in  winter  is  by  two  large 
stoves.  The  temperature  ought  not  to  be  higher  than  from 
54°  to  57°  F.  The  glue  should  be  melted  on  a  small  stove 
heated  by  gas  or  oil. 

Artificial  light. — As  work  is  done  in  the  slojd  room  on 
winter  afternoons,  arrangements  must  be  made  for  artificial 
light.  This  light,  whether  furnished  by  gas  or  by  electricity, 
must  always  come  from  above,  in  order  that  no  shadows  may 
be  cast  on  the  work. 

The  Position  of  the  Body  during-  Work. 

If  slojd  is  to  contribute  towards  physical  development — 
a  point  on  which  most  people  are  now  tolerably  unanimous — 
methodical  and  effectual  arrangements  must  be  made  to  this 
end. 

It  can  easily  be  demonstrated  that  of  all  kinds  of  slojd,  Sl°id  and. 

J  .  .  gymnastics 

slojd-carpentry  in  conjunction  with  gymnastics  is  the  best  should  go 
adapted  for  physical  training,  but  it  is  equally  clear  that  this  hand  m 
can  only  be  the  case,  provided  that  the  positions  assumed  and 
the  motions  prescribed  are  well-selected.     As  regards  this  we 
have  to  find  the  happy  medium.     On  the  one  hand  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  many  of  the  so-called  "  instinctive  "  positions 
assumed  by  artisans  and  "  slojders "  have  reference  more  to 
what  is  advantageous  for  the  work  than  for  the  worker.    On 
the  other  hand  it  must  be  granted  that  though  slojd  ought  to 
be  considered  as  "  applied  gymnastics,"  this  principle  should 
not  be  carried  out  so  pedantically  that  the  idea  of  work  is 
lost  sight  of.       Slojd  is  essentially  work,  and  not  merely  sli>Jd  is 
gymnastic  exercises  with  tools  as  apparatus ;  and  all  that  we  merely 
are  justified  in  aiming  at  is,  that  when  we  have  a  choice  gy>nnastic 

exercises. 

between  positions  and  movements   favourable   to   physical 
development  and  those  which  are  unfavourable,  we  must 
adopt  the  former.     We  may  rest  assured  that,  in  the  long 
run,  not  only  the  worker  but  the  work  will  gain  thereby. 
Harmonious  or  all-round  physical  development  is  mate- 


22 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


rially  advanced  when  the  muscles  of  both  sides  are  equally 
exercised  during  work.  This  is  a  fundamental  rule  in  gym- 
nastics. It  is  equally  binding  in  slb'jd  whenever  it  is  capable 
of  application.  The  objection  we  sometimes  hear  that  the 
left  hand  has  not  the  same  strength  and  steadiness  as  the 
right,  depends  on  a  confusion  between  cause  and  effect, 
because  this  inferiority  in  most  cases  is  caused  by  the  fact 
that  at  an  early  age  the  left  hand  in  the  matter  of  exercise 
is  neglected  for  the  right.  It  is,  moreover,  easy  to  enumerate 
a  great  number  of  operations  in  which  both  hands  execute 
almost  the  same  work.  As  examples  may  be  given :  sowing 
seed,  kneading  dough,  weaving,  hewing  wood,  driving,  rowing, 
playing  on  the  piano,  &c.  In  slojd-carpentry  the  saw,  the 
plane,  the  centre-bit,  and  the  file  may,  in  particular,  be 
directed  alternately  by  the  right  and  by  the  left  hand,  and 
the  change  should  be  made  by  all  the  pupils  together,  at  the 
command  of  the  teacher,  about  every  half  hour.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  use  of  the  axe  or  the  knife  by  the  left  hand  is  not 
to  be  recommended  until  great  experience  in  the  use  of  the 
left  has  been  gained,  on  account  of  the  greater  danger  of 
injury  should  the  tool  accidentally  slip  aside. 

The  following  general  rules  may  be  given  for  the  positions 
and  movements  in  educational  slojd-carpentry. 

Position  of  the  chest. — The  chest  encloses  the  important 
vital  organs,  the  heart  and  the  lungs,  the  former  of  which 
regulates  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  latter  the 
process  of  respiration.  That  these  may  freely  and  without 
hindrance  perform  their  functions,  the  space  in  which  they 
move  must  not  be  diminished.  It  must  rather  be  enlarged. 
We  must  therefore  endeavour  to  prevent  any  narrowing  of 
the  chest,  and  attention  should  always  be  directed  to  keeping 
the  shoulders  well  back  during  work,  in  order  that  the  chest 
may  be  expanded.  Inspiration  and  expiration  should  take 
place  quietly,  without  any  effort  whatever. 

The  head  should  be  held  as  erect  as  possible,  to  avoid  un- 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS.  23 

necessary  loss  of  muscular  power,  to  permit  greater  freedom 
of  circulation,  and  to  preserve  the  eyesight  from  injury  during 
work.  When  the  head  is  bent  forwards  the  veins  in  some 
situations  are  compressed,  in  others  extended ;  in  both  cases 
their  calibre  is  diminished.  In  connection  with  the  effect  the 
position  of  the  head  may  have  upon  the  circulation,  the 
importance  of  loose  clothing  should  be  noticed.  Tightly 
fitting  collars  and  neckties  should  be  above  all  avoided.  To 
preserve  the  sight,  work  should  not  be  held  nearer  the  eye 
than  about  12  in. :  for  this  reason  it  is  very  advantageous  in 
educational  slojd  to  use  exclusively  benches  whose  construc- 
tion permits  of  their  being  raised  to  different  heights.  Thus 
the  work  may  always  be  held  at  the  proper  distance  from  the 
eye,  while  the  position  of  the  head  is,  from  the  hygienic  point 
of  view,  most  advantageous. 

The  feet  should  be  so  placed  as  to  afford  the  best  and  firmest 
support  during  work.  In  the  execution  of  every  exercise  a 
certain  mechanical  resistance  has  to  be  overcome.  For  this 
purpose  muscular  strength,  and  in  certain  circumstances  the 
weight  of  the  body,  must  be  called  into  play.  This  resistance 
must  be  regarded  as  force  opposing  the  worker  in  a  certain 
direction,  and  he  must  allow  his  body  to  assume  the  state  of 
equilibrium  most  favourable  in  relation  to  the  direction  of  the 
force.  This  is  done  as  regards  the  feet,  when  the  line  of  most 
resistance  is  in  front  of  the  worker,  by  placing  the  one  foot 
in  front  of  the  other  in  such  a  position  that  a  line  drawn  from 
the  foremost  foot  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  would  meet 
the  heel  of  the  other  at  right  angles ;  and  when  the  resistance 
is  from  the  side,  by  placing  the  feet  apart  sideways.  A  bad 
habit  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially  in  planing,  is  to  turn 
the  toes  in.  This  ought  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
because  it  interferes  with  the  natural  action  of  the  knee  joint. 

The  position  and  movements  of  the  body. — The  worker 
should  assume  a  position,  in  relation  to  his  work,  which 
enables  the  muscles  of  his  arms  to  have  free  play  in  the  most 
favourable  direction  for  its  execution,  i.e.,  in  a  direction 


24 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Order  an 
indispens- 
able 
condition. 


The  pupils' 
placet  for 
work. 


Swnbers 
on  the 
bench** 


fixed 
placet  for 
tooit. 


opposed  to  the  line  of  resistance,  or  friction  between  the  tool 
and  the  piece  of  wood.  In  certain  exercises,  such  as  planing 
and  boring,  this  friction  is,  to  some  extent,  increased  by  the 
necessary  bending  of  the  body  over  the  tool,  whereby  the 
weight  of  the  body  helps  to  press  it  against  the  wood.  In 
using  some  tools,  e.g.,  the  saw,  this  weight  may  also  act  as  a 
kind  of  regulator,  by  gently  setting  the  body  in  motion  back- 
wards and  forwards.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Plates  I.-  VIII. 
for  illustrations  of  some  of  the  most  important  positions.* 

Some  Rules  for  the  Slojd  Teacher. 

In  all  teaching,  and  not  least  in  slojd  teaching,  the  main- 
tenance of  order  must  be  laid  down  as  an  indispensable 
condition.  The  following  simple  directions  may  serve  for 
guidance  to  the  teacher. 

Every  pupil  should  have  a  fixed  place  at  a  bench.  When 
circumstances  permit,  it  is  advisable  to  have  at  disposal  as 
many  benches  (or  when  benches  intended  for  two  are  used, 
half  as  many  benches)  as  there  are  pupils  taking  part  simul- 
taneously in  a  lesson. 

The  benches  and  tools  should  be  furnished  with  numbers, 
so  that  they  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  one  another. 
The  following  tools  should,  if  possible,  belong  to  each  bench, 
and  be  marked  with  its  number :  knife,  trying-plane,  smooth- 
ing-plane,  jack-plane,  square,  marking-gauge,  compasses,  rule 
or  metre  measure,  and  scraper. t  Other  tools  may  serve  the 
whole  class  in  common. 

All  tools  should  have  fixed  places.     Those  belonging1  to  the 

*  O         O 

bench  may  be  allowed  to  lie  upon  it  until  the  close  of  the 
lesson,  but  all  tools  in  common  use  should  be  laid  by  or  hung 
up  immediately  after  use,  in  order  that  they  may  be  easily 
found. 

The  teacher  must  take  care  that  all  the  edge  tools  in  use  are 

*  These  plates  are  specially  intended  to  illustrate  the  position  of  body  which 
the  worker  should  assume  when  beginning  the  particular  exercise  indicated, 
t  These  constitute  the  bench-set. 


INTRODUCTORY     REMARKS.  25 

well  sharpened,  and  that  any  tool  which  gets  out  of  order,  or  The 
is  broken,  is  repaired  as  soon  as  possible.     If  practicable,  the 
pupils  should  do  their  own  repairs.  repairing 

At  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  the  pupils  should,  in  an 
orderly  way,  get  out  their  tools  and  work.  The  latter,  if 
begun  in  a  previous  lesson,  should  be  kept  in  boxes  specially 
provided  for  the  purpose,  and  should  be  marked  with  the 
pupils'  names. 

In  order  to  teach  and  superintend  in  the  full  meaning  of  Teaeher 
these  terms,  the  teacher  must  not  stand  still  in  one  place,  dunny 
He  must  go  from  one  pupil  to  another  with  advice  and  criti-  work- 
cism.     The  pupils,  on  the  contrary,  must,  as  far  as  possible, 
remain  at  their  benches.     If  they  desire  any  advice  from  the 
teacher,  they  must  not  attract  his  attention  by  calling  out, 
but  by  some  signal,  e.g.,  holding  up  one  hand,  standing  in 
front  of  the  bench  and  looking  towards  him,  etc.     All  un- 
necessary talking  must  be  carefully  avoided. 

The  pupil  himself,  guided  by   the   teacher,  must  select  selection 
suitable  wood.     Waste  must  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.       of  wood. 

The  pupil  must  not  be  allowed  to  polish  with  sand-paper  Sand- 
until  the  teacher  has  examined  the  work  and  found  that^T*"' 
sufficient  use  has  been  made  of  cutting  tools.    The  sand-paper 
is  to  be  kept  by  the  teacher  and  given  out  by  him  as  required. 
About  6  sq.  in.  is  calculated  for  each  model.     The  calculation 
is  founded  on  the  supposition  that  though  the  models  become 
larger  as  the  course  proceeds,  the  greater  facility  of  the  pupil 
diminishes  in  about  the  same  degree  his  need  of  sand-paper. 

At  the  end  of  the  lesson  all  the  tools  should  be  put  back  putting 
in  their  places,  care  being  taken  that  all  the  saws  are  loosened. the  slffjd 
The  tools  should  be  counted  by  the  "  captain,"  or  monitor,  order. 
appointed  for  the  class,  after  which  the  teacher  sees  that 
everything  is  in  its  right  place.     The  wood  and  the  pieces  of 
work  are  put  away  tidily.     The  benches  are  brushed  and 
made  clean  with  a  brush  which  should  hang  by  the  side  of 
each  bench,  and  the  floor  is  swept.     The  shavings,  however, 
need  not  be  carried  away  oftener  than  once  or  twice  a  week. 


26 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Fin  it  lied 

m  r  . 


Taking  tht 
work  homr. 


Irtybook. 


When  the  finished  pieces  of  work  have  been  "  passed  "  by 
the  teacher,  a  label  should  be  stuck  on,  and  on  this  label 
should  be  stated  the  number  of  the  model  and  its  name,  the 
name  and  age  of  the  pupil,  and  the  number  of  hours  spent  in 
making  it.  If  it  is  considered  desirable  to  give  every  piece 
of  work  a  value,  this  also  may  be  mentioned  on  the  label. 

Although  from  the  educational  point  of  view  it  is  advisable 
that  the  pupils  should  at  once  take  home  their  work,  it  is 
generally  for  other  reasons  more  expedient  that  it  should 
remain  in  the  school  in  the  care  of  the  teacher  until  it  can 
be  exhibited  publicly  at  an  examination  or  terminal  break - 
ing-up.  After  this  has  taken  place,  the  articles  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  property  of  the  makers.  The  sale  of  work 
for  the  benefit  of  the  school  should  never  be  thought  of. 

A  very  good  plan  is  to  allow  the  pupils  to  take  home  their 
work  as  soon  as  it  is  finished,  in  order  to  show  it  to  their 
parents,  on  the  understanding  that,  after  they  have  seen  it, 
it  is  brought  back  to  the  school,  to  be  kept  there  as  long  as 
necessary. 

The  teacher  should  enter  in  a  day-book,  arranged  for  the 
purpose,  careful  notes  regarding  the  pupils  taking  part  in  the 
slojd  lessons,  their  presence  and  absence  from  lessons,  the 
articles  they  make,  etc.,  etc. 


27 


CHAPTER  II. 
Wood,   or   Timber. 

The  material  generally  used  in  slb'jd-teaching,  and  most 
suitable  for  the  purpose,  is  wood  or  timber. 

Intelligent  knowledge  of  the  material  used  is  as  essential 
to  the  teacher  as  acquaintance  with  the  tools  required.  He 
ought,  e.g.,  to  be  familiar  with  the  qualities  which  render 
different  kinds  of  wood  more  or  less  appropriate  for  different 
purposes.  Accordingly  the  description  of  the  tools  given 
in  Chapter  III.  is  here  preceded  by  a  brief  account  of  the 
growth  of  trees ;  of  the  most  important  properties  of  wood, 
and  the  principal  changes  which  it  undergoes;  and  by  a 
comparison  of  the  technical  qualities  of  the  various  kinds  of 
wood  in  common  use. 

A.    The  Structure  and  Composition  of  Wood. 

Wood  or  timber  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  stems  and 
branches  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

To  examine  the  inner  structure  of  a  tree-stem,  a  section  A  tree-stem 
may  be  made  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  its  length, in  section- 
i.e.,  a  transverse  or  cross  section;  or  from  the  pith  to  the 
bark  in  the  line  of  one  of  the  radii  and  parallel  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  length,  i.e.,  a  radial  section;  or  a  third  section 
may  be  made  at  right  angles  to  both  the  preceding  as  a 
tangent  to  the  circumference,  i.e.,  a  tangential  section. 


28 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


On  examining 
the  cross-section 
of  a  stem  we  find 
an  outer  ring,  the 
bark,  consisting  of 
a  corky  layer,  the 
outer  bark,  and 
the  inner  bark  or 
bast',  next  comes 
the  wood,  consti- 
tuting the  chief 
portion  of  the 
stem,  and  in  the 


Fig.  1.    Three  sections  of  a  tree-stem,  at  right 
angles  to  one  another. 


T.  cross  section,  K.  radial  section,  Tg.  tangential  section. 
Lircll    paib    IS    a  3^.  meciulla  or  pith,  B.  Bark,  C.  Cambium,  aa.  Concentric 
-.r.1     -fill^    ™'±1,   annual  layers,  mm.  Medullary  rays,  a&.  thickness  of  medullary 
Canal,    mled    Wltil  raySi  cd.  height  of  medullary  rays,  II.  vessels. 

soft  cellular  tissue  called  the  pith  or  medulla.  Between  the 
wood  and  the  bast  lies  a  narrow,  light-coloured  ring,  the 
Cambium,  This  consists  of  a  layer  of  embryonic  cells,  from 
which  are  developed  011  the  one  side  wood,  and  on  the  other 
bast,  and  it  is  here  that  the  growth  of  the  tree  takes  place. 

The  Cambium  forms  the  soft,  moist,  spongy  mass  which 
may  be  seen  under  the  bark  in  spring  when  the  sap  begins 
to  rise.  It  consists  of  microscopic  cells,  some  of  which  are 
long,  prismatic,  and  pointed  at  the  ends,  while  others  are 
shorter  and  have  ends  which  terminate  abruptly.  The  inner 
bark  and  wood  are  developed  chiefly  from  the  long  cells,  the 
medullary  rays  from  the  short  ones. 

Wood  Cells. 

The  young  cells  from  which  wood  is  developed  have  at 


which  nourishes  the  growing  tree,  and  which  circulates  with 
ease  from  one  thin  walled  cell  to  another,  and  thus  permeates 
the  whole  of  the  tissue.  Gradually  the  walls  of  the  cells 
become  thicker  ;  the  cell  contents  solidify  ;  the  sap  flows  less 


WOOD,    OR    TIMBER.  29 

and  less  freely ;  the  whole  tissue  assumes  the  characteristics 
of  wood,  and  ceases  to  take  part  in  the  circulation  and  assimi- 
lation of  the  sap. 

The  cellular  tissue  consists  chiefly  of  cellulose,  the  chemical 
constituents  of  which  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

Wood  Fibres. 

The  cells  from  which  wood  is  developed  are  principally 
the  long-pointed  cells.  They  lie  close  together  and  overlap 
one  another  at  the  ends,  thus  forming  minute  tubes  or  fibres. 
The  zone  of  wood  in  any  stem  consists  of  these  fibres  massed 
together,  and  extending  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the 
stem.  The  connection  between  separate  fibres  is  often  very 
slight,  as  is  shown  by  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be 
separated. 

In  trees  of  regular  growth  the  fibres  are  straight  and 
parallel.  Wood  of  this  kind  is  called  "  straight  fibred."  It 
is  easily  split.  This  is  not  the  case  with  wood  in  which 
the  fibres  are  crooked,  or  twisted  about  one  another,  as  in 
gnarled  or  mis-shapen  trees.  The  fibres  in  the  root,  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem,  knotty  branches  and  rough  excrescences 
are  always  crooked,  and  sometimes  they  are  twisted  and 
involved  in  the  most  remarkable  way.  This  gives  rise  to  the 
peculiar  speckled  and  veined  appearance  which  is  so  highly 
prized  in  some  kinds  of  wood. 

The  bast  also  consists  of  fibres,  but  they  are  longer  and 
usually  tougher  than  wood-fibres. 

Concentric  Annual  Layers. 

A  new  layer  of  bast  and  a  new  layer  of  wood  are  formed 
annually.  This  new  formation  goes  on  rapidly  in  spring  and 
early  summer,  when  vital  activity  in  the  tree  is  at  its  height. 
The  cells  are  then  large,  and  the  wood  formed  from  them,  i.e., 
spring  wood,  is  soft  and  loose  in  texture  and  light  in  colour. 
After  the  tree  has  budded  the  formation  of  wood  goes  on  for 


30 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


of  the  con- 
centric 
annual 
layer*. 


tion  uf  the 
a<je  of  a 
tree. 


a  time,  but  less  actively.  The  cells  diminish  in  size  and  in 
diameter,  and  are  more  closely  packed  together.  The  wood 
formed  at  this  period — autumn  wood — is  generally  darker  in 
colour  and  closer  in  texture  than  spring  wood.  There  are 
fewer  vessels  (see  p.  31 )  in  autumn  wood ;  in  spring  wood,  on 
the  contrary,  they  are  numerous  and  quite  visible  as  pores. 

**  In  consequence  of  the  characteristics  of  autumn  wood,  the 
boundary  line  between  two  periods  of  vegetation  is  clearly 
defined,  and  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  concentric  annual 
layers  which  mark  each  yearly  increase  in  growth. 

These  layers  are  most  sharply  defined  in  needle-leaved  trees 
and  in  some  broad-leaved  trees,  e.g.,  the  oak,  the  ash,  and  the 
elm.*  They  are  less  conspicuous  in  the  birch,  the  aspen,  the 
alder,  etc.,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  even  difficult  to  distinguish 

.  them  at  all.     As  a  new  layer  of  wood  is  formed  every  year, 
the  age  of  a  tree  may  be  determined  by  the  number  of  layers. 
In  the  tropics,  where  vegetation  goes  on  during  almost  the 
entire  year  without  any  well-marked  period  of  rest,  the  con- 
centric annual  layers  disappear  entirely. 

The  breadth  of  the  concentric  layers  varies  in  different 
trees.  In  some  cases  they  are  more  than  1  inch  broad,  in 
others  scarcely  ^  inch.  Their  breadth  may  vary  even  in 
the  same  stem,  depending  on  the  more  or  less  favourable 
weather  of  successive  seasons.  The  layers 
on  the  side  exposed  to  the  south  are  often 
broader  than  those  on  the  north.  In  old 
needle-leaved  trees  we  usually  find  very  nar- 
row layers  nearest  the  pith;  beyond  these 
the  layers  widen  for  the  greater  portion  of 
the  stem,  and  then  contract  once  more  until 
the  outermost  ones  are  often  so  narrow  that 
they  can  with  difficulty  be  distinguished  by 
the  naked  eye.  See  Fig.  2. 

*  The  terms  needle-leaved  trees  and  broad-leaved  trees  used  throughout  this 
i  may  be  taken  as  practically  synonymous  with  Conifers  and  Dicotyledonous 
trees. — TRS. 


2.  —  Showing 
manner  of  growth 
in  needle  -  leaved 
trees. 


WOOD,    OR    TIMBER. 


31 


Narrow  annual  layers  betoken  good  wood  in  needle-leaved  close  and 
trees  ;  but  the  opposite  holds  good  in  the  case  of  broad-leaved  Io( 
trees  with  large  pores,  e.g.,  the  oak,  the  ash,  and  the  elm. 
Here  broad  annual  layers  are  characteristic  of  a  good  quality 
of  wood,  because  the  pores  which  render  the  wood  open  in 
the  grain  occur  chiefly  in  that  portion  of  the  layer  which  is 
formed  in  early  spring,  and  are  less  numerous  in  the  closer 
tissue  of  the  autumn  wood.     See  Fig.  3. 

Fig.  3. 


Fir. 

Narrow  layers,    Broad  layers, 

hard  resinous     loose  fibred 

timber.  timber. 


Oak. 

Narrow  layers,    Broad  layers, 
loose  fibred         hard  timber, 
porous  timber. 


Vessels  or  Air-tubes. 

When  a  cross-section  of  a  stem  is  carefully  examined  a 
number  of  minute  holes  or  pores  are  seen.  These  are  the 
mouths  of  vessels  or  air-tubes,  which  penetrate  the  whole 
substance  of  the  wood,  parallel  with  the  fibres.  Their  func- 
tion is  to  enable  the  air  to  circulate  in  the  stem,  and  they  The  porous- 
are  found  even  in  wood  of  the  closest  grain,  rendering  ]^ne8*°fwood' 
porous.  Vessels  are  most  numerous  in  the  wood  formed 
early  in  spring,  and  very  few  are  found  in  autumn  wood,  a 
circumstance  which  helps  to  make  the  annual  layers  more 
distinct.  According  to  the  size  of  these  vessels  wood  is  said 
to  define  or  coarse-grained. 

Each  kind  of  tree  has  something  peculiar  to  itself  in  the 
manner  of  distribution,  the  number,  and  the  size  of  its 
vessels.  They  are  most  marked  in  the  oak,  the  ash,  and  the 
elm,  giving  to  the  wood  of  these  trees,  when  seen  in  vertical 


g2  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

section,  its  striped  or  streaked  appearance.  In  a  number  of 
trees  on  the  other  hand,  e.g.,  the  birch,  the  vessels  are  hardly 
visible,  and  they  are  distributed  pretty  equally  over  the  con- 
centric annual  layers,  making  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
consecutive  layers. 

Needle-leaved  trees  have  no  air  vessels,  but  have  channels 
to»»"-         filled  with  resin,  i.e.,  resin-canals.      These  occur  chiefly  in 
the  autumn  wood,  to  which  they  give  a  darker  colour. 

Heart-wood  and  Sap-wood. 

In  many  kinds  of  trees,  when  the  stem  is  sawn  across,  a 
considerable  difference  may  be  observed  between  the  appear- 
ance of  the  inner  and  older,  and  the  outer  and  younger 
concentric  annual  layers.  The  inner  layers  are  usually 
firmer  and  closer  in  texture  and  darker  in  colour  than  the 
outer,  which  are  less  compact,  lighter  in  colour,  and  full  of 
sap. 

The  titan-       The  firmer,  darker  wood  is  called  heart-wood  or  duramen  ; 
uxw,  the     {.^e  iooser  lighter  wood,  sap-wood  or  alburnum.     As  a  rule 

valuable 

part  of  the  the  latter  forms  a  comparatively  narrow  ring  round  the 
former,  which  constitutes  the  greater  portion  of  the  stem, 
and  which,  when  sound,  is  the  valuable  portion  on  account 
of  its  firmer  texture  and  greater  durability. 

The  proportion  which  the  heart-wood  bears  to  the  sap- 
wood  varies  in  different  kinds  of  trees.  For  example,  in  the 
case  of  broad-leaved  trees,  the  proportion  is  largest  in  the 
oak,  the  ash,  and  the  elm ;  least  in  the  birch,  the  maple,  the 
alder,  the  hornbeam,  etc.  In  needle-leaved  trees,  it  is  greatest 
in  the  larch  and  the  fir ;  least  in  the  pine.  The  resin  in  these 
trees  is  found  chiefly  in  the  heart-wood.  It  greatly  increases 
its  closeness  and  durability,  and  darkens  its  colour. 

The  most  striking  example  of  the  difference  in  appearance 
between  heart- wood  and  sap-wood  is  presented  by  ebony,  in 
which  the  former  is  black  and  the  latter  white. 


WOOD,    OR   TIMBER.  33 


The  Pith  and  the  Medullary  Rays. 

The  pith  forms  a  column  in  the  central  part  of  the  stem, 
and  the  medullary  rays  radiate  from  the  pith  towards  the 
bark. 

The  pith  is  looser  in  texture,  and  is  composed  of  shorter 
cells  than  the  wood.  The  shape  and  size  of  the  column  vary 
considerably  in  different  trees.  In  some,  e.g.,  the  yew,  it  is 
very  thin ;  in  others,  e.g.,  the  elder,  it  occupies  a  considerable 
space. 

The  medullary  rays  or  "  transverse  septa  "  are  composed  of 
flat  cellular  tissue,  which  forms  thin  vertical  plates  radiating 
towards  the  bark.  During  the  first  year  of  the  growth  of 
the  tree,  these  rays  originate  in  the  pith,  divide  the  patches 
of  wood  and  bast,  and  reach  as  far  as  the  bark.  In  sub- 
sequent years  they  are  formed  in  connection  with  the  new 
wood,  not  with  the  pith,  and  they  extend  into  the  bark. 
The  medullary  rays  are  the  medium  by  which  the  pith  and 
the  wood  are  brought  into  communication  with  the  bark. 
They  also  divide  the  wood  into  wedge-shaped  bundles.  They 
are  seldom  so  straight  and  regularly  disposed  as  is  represented 
in  the  diagram  (Fig.  1),  but  are  generally  more  or  less  curved, 
and  they  often  branch  out  obliquely.  They  vary  considerably  Different 
both  in  number  and  appearance  in  different  trees,  and  thus,  kinds  ^ 

.  wood  known 

like  the  vessels,  they  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  recognition  of  by  the 
different  kinds  of  wood.     For  example,  oak  is  easily  known character 
by  the  smoothness  and  glossiness  of  its  broad  medullary  rays  medullary 
when  these  are  seen  in  radial  section.     This  gives  to  oak  rays- 
timber  the  beautiful  figured  appearance  called  "  silver  grain." 
The  beech  has  also  long,  broad  medullary  rays.     The  maple 
is  distinguished  by  the  fineness  and  number  of  its  medullary 
rays. 

In  the  greater  number  of  loose-fibred,  broad-leaved  trees, 
the  rays  are  very  narrow,  and  scarcely  distinguishable  by  the 


34  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

naked  eye.     This  is  also  the  case  with  needle-leaved  trees, 
the  rays  of  which  are  extremely  numerous. 

Tht  citatage  The  medullary  rays  affect  to  a  considerable  extent  the  ease 
f  <*"*•  or  difficulty  with  which  wood  may  be  split.  As  a  general 
rule,  timber  is  easily  split  if  it  has  broad  rays  like  the  oak 
and  the  beech,  or  if  the  rays,  though  numerous,  are  straight 
and  narrow  like  those  of  the  fir  and  the  pine.  Other  circum- 
stances, however,  may  determine  the  greater  or  less  resistance 
which  any  given  timber  presents  to  cleavage. 

The  Sap. 

Next  to  the  wood  the  sap  is  the  most  important  element  in 
timber.  Its  chief  constituent  is  water,  which  holds  in  solution 
various  organic  and  inorganic  substances,  but  its  composition 
undergoes  changes  in  the  course  of  circulation  through  the 
different  parts  of  the  tree. 

The  sap  materials  are  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  as  crude, 
or  ascending  sap,  are  carried  by  the  still  active  cells  of  the 
sap-wood  to  the  leaves.  Here,  through  the  influence  of  light 
and  air,  the  crude  sap  is  changed  and  made  fit  for  the  nourish- 
ment and  growth  of  the  tree,  and  is  called  elaborated  sap. 
From  the  leaves  it  descends  in  the  bast  tubes  to  the  cambium, 
where  the  new  wood  and  bast  are  formed. 

The  organic  Amongst  the  organic  substances  which  the  sap  holds  in 
o/"/* '»"""*  s°luti°n  may  be  named,  starch,  sugar,  colouring  matter, 
tannic  acid,  and  albuminoids.  The  latter  render  it  very  liable 
to  fermentation,  and  when  this  takes  place  the  wood  decays. 
This  is  the  reason  why  timber,  felled  when  the  sap  is  circu- 
lating, and  allowed  to  lie  unbarked,  readily  becomes  "  sour." 
It  also  explains  why  sap-wood  decays  more  quickly  than 
heart-wood. 

When  wood  is  burnt  the  inorganic  constituents  remain  in 
the  ashes. 

Sap  also  contains  substances  which  are  not  required  for 
the  growth  of  the  tree,  but  which  occupy  space  and  channels 


WOOD,    OB    TIMBRE.  35 

in  the  wood.     Amongst  these  substances  are  the  volatile  oils, 
which  are  found  chiefly  in  needle-leaved  trees,  and  of  which 
turpentine  is  the  most  important.     The  resin  or  gwm  found  Turpentine, 
in  needle-leaved  trees  is  also  formed  from  these  oils.     Tannic  ^nd  tannic 
acid  is  found  in  a  great  many  trees,  especially  in  the  bark.  acid- 
It  is  known  by  its  acrid  taste,  and  it  abounds  chiefly  in  the 
oak,  the  fir,  and  the  alder.     When  fresh  timber  in  which 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  tannic  acid  is  split  or  sawn,  the  acid 
makes  the  polished  edge  of  the  tool  become  blue-black  in 
colour. 

The  destructive  effect  of  the  albuminoids  of  the  sap  is 
counteracted  by  the  turpentine,  resin,  and  tannic  acid. 

Water  Capacity. 

The  sap,  as  stated  above,  consists  chiefly  of  water ;  and,  as 
it  circulates  in  the  sap-wood,  it  follows  that  the  latter  con- 
tains more  water  than  the  heart-wood,  and  more  in  spring 
than  in  the  height  of  summer.  As  a  general  rule  the  water 
contained  in  unseasoned  wood  is  about  40  to  50  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  wood.  In  unseasoned  ash  and  beech  it  is 
20  to  30  per  cent. ;  in  loose-grained  oak,  hornbeam,  maple, 
elm,  Scotch  fir,  and  spruce  fir,  30  to  40  per  cent. ;  in  the  looser 
fibred  trees  in  which  sap  abounds,  e.g.,  the  alder,  the  lime, 
the  willow,  and  the  aspen,  40  to  50  per  cent. 

The  presence  of  water  has  generally  a  hurtful  effect  upon 
timber,  as  is  shown  in  what  follows. 

B.     The   Changes  which   Wood 
undergoes. 

The  changes  to  which  wood  is  subject  are  partly  mechanical 
in  their  nature,  consisting  of  alterations  in  the  water  capacity, 
and  consequent  alterations  in  shape ;  partly  chemical,  caused 
chiefly  by  the  decomposition  of  the  sap,  which  finally  leads 
to  the  decay  of  the  wood. 


36  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

I.  Changes  in  the  Water  Capacity,  and  the  changes  in 
form  which  are  thereby  produced. 

Newly  felled  timber  contains,  as  has  been  said,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  water — sometimes  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  of  its  own 
weight.  After  lying  for  some  time  in  a  dry  and  airy  place, 
it  loses  about  half  its  amount  of  water  by  evaporation. 
Sawn  or  split  wood,  dried  for  a  year  or  two  under  cover, 
still  retains  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  water,  and  only  by  con- 
tinuous application  of  heat,  or  drying  in  an  oven,  can  the 
water  in  timber  be  completely  expelled. 

During  the  process  of  drying,  timber  decreases  in  volume 
or  shrinks.  If  exposed  again  to  moisture  it  increases  in  volume 
or  sivell*. 

If  any  given  piece  of  timber  were  uniform  in  texture 
throughout,  and  if  no  obstacles  in  any  direction  were  pre- 
sented to  its  expansion,  the  only  result  of  shrinking  or  swell- 
ing would  be  alteration  in  volume  ;  there  would  be  no  change 
in  form.  This,  however,  is  seldom  the  case.  Generally 
speaking,  the  texture  of  the  wood  varies  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  piece.  Again,  it  is  often  used  under  conditions 
which  do  not  permit  it  to  shrink  or  swell  freely  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  consequently,  it  shrinks  or  swells  more  in  one  place 
than  in  another. 

When  one  part  of  a  piece  of  timber  shrinks  more  rapidly 
than  an  adjacent  part,  the  wood  cracks.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  one  part  swells  more  than  another,  or  if  the  adjacent 
part  meets  with  some  obstacle  to  its  expansion,  the  timber 
changes  in  shape — it  becomes  warped. 

The  shrinkage  of  timber  stands  in  close  connection  with  the 
amount  of  water  contained.  The  more  water  it  gives  off 
while  drying,  the  more  it  shrinks.  Similarly  the  warmer  and 
drier  the  air  in  which  it  is  placed,  the  greater  the  shrinkage. 

Some  kinds  of  wood  shrink  more  than  others,  and  the 
same  kind  of  wood  shrinks  differently  in  different  directions. 


WOOD,    OR   TIMBER.  37 

All  wood  shrinks  least  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres'  length, 
and  generally  so  very  little  that  the  difference  need  not  be 
taken  into  consideration.  But  the  difference  caused  by 
shrinking  is  very  great  across  the  fibres,  and  in  tangential 
section  it  is  two  or  three  times  greater  than  in  radial  section, 
or  in  the  plane  of  the  medullary  rays.  The  sap-wood,  which 
contains  more  water  than  the  heart-wood,  always  shrinks 
more  than  the  latter. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  "  Karmarsch's  Technology," 
shows  the  results  of  experiments  made  on  a  number  of  trees, 
to  ascertain  to  what  extent  their  timber  shrinks.  It  must  be 
observed  that  (1)  the  experiments  were  made  with  thin  pieces 
of  wood  ;  (2)  that  the  figures  are  understood  to  represent  the 
difference  between  wood  which  is  either  quite  green  or  satu- 
rated with  water,  and  that  which  has  been  thoroughly  well 
seasoned ;  and  that,  therefore,  (3)  the  shrinking  of  partially 
seasoned  wood  is  considerably  less  than  is  stated  in  the  table. 
(The  same  applies  of  course  to  the  swelling  of  such  wood, 
when  it  is  again  exposed  to  moisture.) 

The  last  column  gives  the  average  degree  of  shrinkage 
across  the  fibres. 


38 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Shrinkage  of  Timber. 


General 
rtsulti 
afforded  by 
the  above 
table. 


Name  of  tree. 


Degree  of  Shrinkage. 


In  length. 
Per  cent. 


Across  the  fibres  in 
the  direction  of — 


The 

medullary 
rays. 

Per  cent. 


The  common  alder           0.369 

The  elm                     0.124 

The  apple 0.109 

The  common  ash  (young)      0.821 

The  common  birch           0.222 

The  common  beech     0.200 

The  hornbeam       0.400 

Ebony 0.010 

The  oak  (young) 0.400 

The  oak  (old) 0.130 

The  Scotch  fir       0.120 

The  spruce  iir 0.076 

The  lime     0.208 

The  common  larch      0.075 

The  maple 0.072 

Mahogany       0.110 

Lignum  vitae         ...        ....        0.625 

The  pear          0.228 

The  rowan ...  0.190 

The  common  walnut 0.223 


2.91 
2.94 
3.00 
4.05 
3.86 
5.03 
6.66 
2.13 
3.90 
3.13 
3-04 
2.41 
7.79 
2.17 
3.35 
1.09 
5.18 
3.94 
2.11 
3.53 


The 
annual 
layers. 

Per  cent. 


Average 

across  the 

fibres. 

Per  cent. 


5.07 
6.22 
7.39 
6.56 
9.30 
8.06 

10.90 
4.07 
7.55 
7.78 
5.72 
6.18 

11.50 
6.32 
6'59 
1.79 
7.50 

12.70 
8-88 
6-25 


3.99 
4.58 
5.19 
5.30 
6.58 
6.54 
8.78 
3.10 
5.72 
5.45 
4.38 
4.29 
9.64 
4.24 
4.97 
1.44 
6.34 
8.32 
5-49 
4-89 


As  is  seen  from  the  above  table,  the  degree  of  shrinkage  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  wood  is  so  slight  that  it 
may  be  left  entirely  out  of  consideration.  In  the  direction 
of  the  breadth,  however,  it  varies  from  2  per  cent,  to  9  per 
cent.  In  radial  section,  the  general  average  is  5  per  cent. ;  for 
fir  and  pine  3  per  cent. ;  for  birch  4  per  cent.  In  tangential 
section,  where  shrinkage  is  greatest,  it  varies  from  2  per  cent, 
to  13  per  cent.,  the  general  average  for  wood  ill  common  use 
being  7  per  cent. ;  for  fir  and  pine  6  per  cent. ;  for  birch  9 
per  cent. 


WOOD,    OR  TIMBER.  39 

When  a  tree  stem  is 
sawn  up  into  planks  by 
parallellongitudinalcuts, 
the  planks  shrink  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
broadest  portion  shown, 
which  includes  the  pith, 
shrinks  least  in  breadth, 
Fig.  4.  Shrinkage  in  planks.  most  in  thickness  ;  least 

nearest  the  pith,  most  near  the  sides.  The  outermost  plank, 
however,  shrinks  most  in  breadth — in  the  direction  of  the 
annual  layers — and  least  in  thickness.  The  planks  lying 
between  shrink  differently  on  different  sides,  and  become 
concave  to  the  pith,  and  convex  on  the  other  side. 

Of  trees  in  most  general  use,  beech,  lime,  hornbeam,  and 
pear  shrink  most ;  birch,  apple,  white-beam,  walnut,  ash,  and 
oak  shrink  considerably ;  alder,  maple,  Scotch  fir,  elm,  spruce 
fir,  and  larch  shrink  in  a  medium  degree.  Mahogany  shrinks 
least  of  all  timbers. 

Cracks  occur  in  timber,  because,  as  indicated  above,  it  is 
seldom  uniform  in  texture,  and  it  is  therefore  liable  to  shrink 
in  different  degrees  during  seasoning.  The  parts  nearest  the 
sap-wood  shrink  more  rapidly  than  the  heart-wood,  and 
cracks,  which  run  almost  invariably  in  the  direction  of  the 
medullary  rays,  are  the  result.  The  more  rapidly  wood  dries 
the  more  it  cracks,  consequently  timber  should  always  be 
dried  very  slowly  to  prevent  the  formation  of  cracks.  If  it  is 
tolerably  uniform  in  texture,  it  may,  with  proper  treatment, 
be  kept  entirely  free  from  cracks. 

The  swelling,  or  expansion  of  timber,  takes  place  when  it 
is  exposed  to  damp  air  or  water,  and  is  in  direct  relation  to 
its  shrinkage.  When  a  piece  of  dried  wood  is  immersed  in 
water,  it  swells  until  it  occupies  the  same  volume  as  it  occu- 
pied in  its  fresh  condition,  after  which  no  further  expansion 
takes  place.  Its  amount  of  water,  however,  and  consequently 


40  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

its  weight,  are  greater  than  in  its  fresh  condition,  because 
the  vessels  originally  filled  with  air  are  now  filled  with 
water. 

The  warping  of  timber  depends  on  differences  in  the  nature 
of  its  texture,  and  on  other  circumstances  which  cause  changes 
in  form  both  when  it  shrinks  and  when  it  swells.  For  ex- 
ample, a  plank  will  become  twisted  or  curved  if  one  side 
only  is  exposed  to  the  sun  without  being  turned.  Thin,  flat 
pieces  of  wood  become  convex  or  concave,  according  as  one 
or  other  side  is  exposed  to  damp  or  to  drying  influences. 

II.    Means  of  preventing  Cracks  and  Warping. 

The  means  taken  to  keep  timber  as  far  as  possible  from 
cracking  or  warping  during  the  process  of  seasoning,  are  very 
various.  They  are  partly  connected  with  the  treatment  of 
the  wood  when  it  is  cut  up  into  timber,  and  partly  with  its 
treatment  for  any  special  purpose. 

1.  Seasoning. 

when  wood       Trees  should  be  felled  when  the  sap  is  down  or  at  rest. 

'cutdoien  The  best  time  is  from  the  the  middle  of  December  to  the  end 
of  February.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  im- 
portance of  felling  timber  at  the  right  time,  for  if  felled  at 
the  wrong  season,  it  will  contain  too  much  sap,  which  will 
make  it  very  difficult  to  dry,  render  it  much  more  liable  to 
swell  or  shrink,  and  increase  the  risk  of  its  becoming  worm- 
eaten.  In  the  case  of  needle-leaved  trees  excess  of  sap  gives 
u  bluish  tinge  to  the  surface  of  the  timber. 

wood  The  more  slowly  timber  is  dried  the  less  it   cracks,  and 

dried  timber  felled  at  the  proper  season  and  allowed  to  dry  slowly 
cracks  very  little.  Barked  timber,  which  dries  more  quickly 
than  unbarked,  often  cracks  so  widely  that  it  is  quite  unfit 
for  slb'jd-work.  When  the  bark  is  left  on,  the  cracks  may  be 
numerous,  but  they  will  be  small.  Thick  pieces  crack  more 
than  thin  pieces ;  logs  or  round  wood  more  than  split  wood  j 


WOOD,    OE    TIMBER.  41 

sap-wood  more  than  heart-wood.  Care  should  be  taken  dur- 
ing seasoning  that  the  air  has  free  access  to  the  wood  on  all 
sides.  Wood  which  has  been  split  with  the  axe  is  apt  to 
crack  at  the  ends ;  this  may  be  prevented  by  pasting  paper 
over  them.  Portions  of  timber  containing  the  pith  and  the 
adjacent  annual  layers,  always  crack ;  such  pieces  are  there- 
fore unavailable  for  work.  When  round  timber  is  split  in 
order  to  facilitate  seasoning,  it  should  be  divided  through 
the  pith. 

Boards  or  planks  are  best  dried  in  a  drying  shed,  where  Natural 
fresh  air  can  circulate  freely  round  each  piece.     The  best  *^"*" 'gg°' 
way  is  to  place  the  boards  on  their  edges,  with  sufficient  by  exposure 
space  between,  taking  care  that  they  are  not  twisted  in  any 
way.     If  they  are  piled  one  on  the  other,  pieces  of  dry  wood 
should  be  placed  between  them,  in  order  to  separate  them. 
For  obvious  reasons,  none  of  the  timber  should  touch  the 
ground. 

Timber  which  has  been  felled  at  the  proper  time,  takes  no 
harm  from  exposure  to  a  little  rain  in  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer, provided  always  that  the  air  has  free  access,  so  that  it 
may  dry  again  quickly.  Indeed,  timber  usually  dries  very 
rapidly  out  in  the  open  air  in  early  summer.  The  rain  helps 
to  wash  out  the  sap,  and  the  timber  is  thereby  rendered 
more  durable  when  thoroughly  dried. 

When  wholly  or  partially  finished  planks  are  laid  by  for 
future  use,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  do  not  lie  one  close 
upon  the  other,  but  that  both  sides  are  fully  exposed  to  the 
air,  to  facilitate  further  drying  and  prevent  warping. 

In  the  early  stages  of  seasoning,  evaporation  goes  on  with 
tolerable  rapidity,  but  afterwards  it  takes  place  more  slowly, 
and  timber  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  and  airy  place  for  two  or 
three  years  before  it  can  be  considered  fully  seasoned.  Tim-  when  Km, 

*  .  ...          ,.  .    ,  .,   bercanbe 

ber  is  said  to  be  seasoned  when  the  quantity  or  moisture  it  said  to  te 
contains  coincides  with  that  contained  in  the  atmosphere.        seasoned. 
As  has  been  said  above,  the  amount  of  water  in  timber 


42  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

seasoned  as  indicated,  never  falls  below  10  per  cent,  of  its 
weight.  To  decrease  the  water  still  further,  it  is  necessary 
to  dry  the  timber  in  ovens  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
or  in  heated  air,  or  else  to  keep  it  for  a  long  time  in  a  warm 
place. 

influent  of     Drying  expels  water  only,  not  the  essential  elements  of  the 
the  tap  on  some  of  which  part  with  great  difficulty  from  water,  and 

teasoniiii/.  .  ..,  ...  ,  i        ,  •      i          • 

also  take  it  up  again  with  great  readiness  when  the  timber  is 
once  more  exposed  to  moisture.  These  properties  of  the  sap 
make  seasoning  much  more  difficult  than  it  would  otherwise 
be,  and  retard  the  process  considerably  in  wood  which  abounds 
in  sap — e.g.,  beech,  birch,  oak,  and  walnut. 

Removal  of  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  the  sap  may  either  be  removed 
altogether,  or  its  action  may  be  neutralised.  The  first  is 
accomplished  by  immersing  the  wood  in  cold  water  for  some 
time,  or  in  boiling  water  for  a  shorter  time ;  or,  what  is  still 
better,  by  steaming  it.  In  the  second  case  the  timber  is 
impregnated  with  substances  calculated  to  counteract  the 
destructive  effects  of  the  sap — e.g.,  a  solution  of  common  salt, 
vitriol,  chloride  of  zinc,  etc.  These  methods  can,  however, 
only  be  mentioned  here  incidentally,  as  any  detailed  descrip- 
tion would  be  entirely  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work. 

2.  Precautions  necessary  to  prevent  Warping  and 
Cracking  under  special  conditions. 

As  shrinkage  is  greater  in  tangential  than  in  radial  section, 
the  wood  for  any  special  purpose  ought  to  be  sawn  out  or  split 
in  the  direction  of  the  radii  of  the  stem,  in  order  that  the 
article  may  the  better  preserve  its  form  and  size.  There  are, 
however,  some  practical  difficulties  which  render  it  impossible 
to  carry  out  this  principle  in  all  cases. 

jointing  Uniformity  of  texture,  and  consequently  less  tendency  to 
crack  or  warp,  is  more  easily  secured  in  small  pieces  of  timber 
than  in  large  pieces,  and  consequently  it  is  usual  in  the  con- 
struction of  articles  to  employ  smaller  pieces  of  wood  than 


WOOD,    OB   TIMBER.  43 

are  required,  and  to  joint  them  together ;  and  these  pieces 
may  often,  without  any  disadvantage,  be  chosen  from  different 
kinds  of  wood,  and  may  have  their  fibres  running  in  different 
directions.  Hence  it  is  better  in  making  a  broad  plane  sur- 
face to  select  planks  which  have  been  divided  in  two,  than 
to  make  it  of  whole  planks.  Planks  containing  the  heart- 
wood  nearest  the  pith  which  is  generally  cracked,  are  always 
divided  in  two  to  get  rid  of  this  portion. 

Jointing  also  permits  large  plane  surfaces  to  shrink  with-  Frames  <™d 

panels 

out  injury  to  parts  of  the  work  already  completed.  For 
example,  blackboards,  the  panels  of  doors,  etc.,  which  are  set 
into  a  groove  in  a  frame,  are  thus  permitted  to  shrink  with- 
out cracking.  Table-tops  are  strengthened  by  blocks  which 
fit  into  a  groove  in  the  framing,  and  are  glued  to  the  under 
part  of  the  top.  Broad  pieces  of  wood  are  furnished  on  one 
side  with  clamps,  the  fibres  of  which  run  at  right  angles  to 
those  of  the  broad  piece,  and  which  are  inserted  in  such  a 
way  that  the  wood  of  the  broad  piece  can  shrink  without 
hindrance. 

III.    The  Decay  of  Timber. 

After  vital  action  ceases  in  a  tree,  its  substance,  like  that 
of  other  organic  bodies,  undergoes  a  process  of  decomposition, 
which  sooner  or  later  terminates  in  the  total  decay  of  the 
wood.  Decay  takes  place  very  rapidly  if  the  timber  is  ex- 
posed to  alternations  of  moisture,  air,  and  heat. 

The  wood  fibres  themselves  have  a  high  degree  of  durability, 
especially  if  the  sap,  which  is  the  prime  cause  of  decay,  has 
been  removed.  Somaof  the  constituents  of  the  sap,  e.g.,  starch 
and  sugar,  neither  hasten  decay  nor  retard  it,  while  others, 
e.g.,  tannic  acid  and  resin,  counteract  it.  It  is  the  albuminoids 
which  are  the  cause  of  decomposition,  and  the  sap-wood  in 
which  they  abound  is  the  part  which  decays  most  rapidly. 

The  decay  of  timber  is  caused,  in  the  first  instance,  by  the  Blue  mr- 
fermentation  of   the  sap,  which  in  this  state  soon  acts  in-/a"' 
juriously  on  the  wood-fibres.     The   first  sign  of  this  is  a 


44  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

bluish  tinge  on  the  surface  of  the  wood.  Timber  which  has 
assumed  this  bluish  tinge  is  not  only  less  durable  and  strong, 
but  it  is  also  extremely  difficult  to  work.  Though  the  fer- 
menting elements  dry  in  the  wood  cells,  they  do  not  therefore 
lose  their  power.  They  remain  dormant  merely,  and  the 
application  of  moisture  after  the  lapse  of  time  is  sufficient  to 
wake  them  into  activity.  Hence,  timber  which  is  exposed 
to  alternations  of  heat  and  moisture  may  very  soon  acquire 
a  "blue  surface,"  especially  if  kept  where  ventilation  is 
deficient. 

If  the  process  of  decay  goes  on  further,  fungi  almost  always 
make  their  appearance.  One  of  the  most  destructive  forms 
in  which  they  appear  is  known  as  "  dry  rot." 

offntects  Timber  is  also  destroyed  by  insects  or  worms,  which  bore 
their  way  through  the  wood,  and  often  reduce  the  inner 
portion  completely  to  dust  before  any  signs  of  destruction 
appear  on  the  outside.  Wood  which  is  rich  in  sap,  e.g.,  birch 
and  alder,  is  most  liable  to  such  attacks  ;  beech  is  less  liable  ; 
while  the  elm,  the  maple,  and  resinous  needle-leaved  trees, 
are  seldom  attacked. 

Means  of  Preventing  Decay. 

As  the  decomposition  of  the  sap  is  the  real  cause  of  the 
decay  of  wood,  the  means  taken  to  prevent  decay  are  directed 
either  towards  the  retardation  of  this  decomposition  or  to 
the  complete  expulsion  of  the  sap,  e.g.  : 

1. — The  timber  is  cut  down  during  the  season  of  the 

year  when  there  is  least  sap  in  the  stem. 
2. — The  timber  is  seasoned  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  in 
circumstances  which  permit  free  access  and  circula- 
tion of  air,  and  is  protected  not  only  during  season- 
ing but  afterwards,  from  alternations  of  moisture 
and  dryness. 

The  growth  of  fungus  is  prevented  by  exposure 
to  light,  and  continuous  and  uniform  ventilation. 


WOOD,    OR   TIMBER.  45 

3. — The  wood,  after  it  has  been  made  into  articles,  is 

preserved  from  damp  by  varnish,  oil  paint,  etc. 
4. — The   sap  is  got  rid  of  by   steeping  the  timber  in 
water  or  steaming  it  in  ovens. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  in  this  way  the 
constituents  of  the  sap  which  contribute  to  the 
durability  of  the  wood,  i.e.,  resin  and  tannic  acid, 
are  also  removed. 

5.  The  timber  is  impregnated  with  some  substance  in 
solution  which  neutralises  the  effects  of  the  sap. 

The  two  last  named  processes  are  not  used  for 
slojd  timber. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  added  that  when  the  sap  is  re- 
moved entirely,  or  when  the  timber  is  impregnated  with 
some  neutralising  substance,  it  does  not  become  worm-eaten. 
When  insects  attack  wood  which  has  not  been  treated  in  one 
of  these  ways,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extirpate  them.  It 
has  been  recommended  to  apply  an  acid,  e.g..  muriatic  acid, 
or  a  solution  of  camphor  to  the  worm-eaten  holes;  but  this  is, 
generally  speaking,  not  practicable,  and  it  is,  moreover,  not  a 
complete  cure. 

C.     Different  kinds  of  Wood. 

I.    Comparison  of  the  Qualities  of  different  kinds 
of  Wood. 

The  chief  qualities  of  timber  are: — strength,  the  ease  or 
difficulty  with  which  it  is  split,  hardness,  toughness,  elasticity, 
texture,  colour  and  smell,  weight,  durability,  and  its  capacity 
for  shrinking  and  swelling.  The  two  last  mentioned  quali- 
ties have  already  been  taken  up. 

It  is  obvious  that  most  of  these  qualities  depend  not  only 
on  the  kind  of  tree  from  which  the  timber  is  obtained,  but 
also  on  many  incidental  circumstances,  such  as  climate  and 
soil,  the  age  of  the  tree,  the  season  of  the  year  when  it  was 


46  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

cut  down,  subsequent  treatment,  etc.  It  is  therefore  hardly 
possible  to  make  any  general  statements  regarding  them 
which  shall  hold  good  in  all  cases. 

1.  The  strength  of  timber  is   shown  by  its   power   of 
resistance  to  pressure,  rupture,  tearing,  and  twisting. 

The  oak  and  the  Scotch  fir  present  the  greatest  resist- 
ance to  pressure.  The  oak,  the  ash,  the  spruce  fir,  and  next 
after  them  the  Scotch  fir,  the  larch,  and  the  aspen,  resist 
rupture  best.  In  this  respect  the  beech  and  the  alder  are  not 
so  strong.  The  oak  and  the  ash,  and  after  them  the  beech, 
the  spruce  fir,  the  Scotch  fir,  and  the  elm,  present  the  greatest 
resistance  to  tearing. 

2.  The  ease  or  difficulty  with  which  different  kinds  of 
WOOd  may  be  split.     By  this  is  meant  the  greater  or  lesser 
ease  with  which  timber  may  be  divided  by  a  wedge-shaped 
tool  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  fibres.     It  is  closely 
related  to  the  quality  of  the  fibres  and  the  manner  of  their 
distribution.      Wood   which   has    grown    quickly   has  long 
straight  fibres,  is  free  from  knots,  and  is  easily  split.     "  Cross- 
grained  "  wood,  the  fibres  of  which  twist  and  cross  each  other, 
and  the  wood  of  roots  and  of  branches  with  knotty  excres- 
cences, is  difficult  to  split.     Wood  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  nearest  the  roots  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  split. 

When  the  medullary  rays  are  large  and  long  as  in  beech 
and  oak,  or  numerous  and  fine  as  in  needle-leaved  trees, 
timber  is  easily  split  iu  radial  section,  but  all  timber  is 
harder  to  split  in  tangential  than  in  radial  section. 

The  following  timbers  are  difficult  to  split : — figured  birch, 
hornbeam,  elm,  maple,  and  white-beam. 

The  following  are  easy  to  split: — ash,  beech,  alder,  oak, 
aspen,  Scotch  fir,  spruce  fir,  lime,  poplar,  and  chestnut. 

Old  knotty  oak,  however,  may  present  great  difficulty. 

3.  The  density  or  hardness  of  timber  is  shown  in  the 
resistance  it  offers  to  the  tools  with  which  it  is  worked.     It 
is  impossible  to  give  definite  statistics  on  this  point,  because 


WOOD,    OR     TIMBER,  47 

it  depends  so  much  on  circumstances,  e.g.,  the  varieties  of 
texture  in  the  same  tree,  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the 
fibres,  the  degree  of  moisture,  the  presence  of  resin,  etc.,  etc. : 
the  general  rule,  however,  holds  good,  that  close-grained 
timber  with  high  specific  gravity  is  hard  (it  being  under- 
stood that  comparisons  are  always  made  with  seasoned  wood). 
Seasoned  timber  is  harder  than  green  timber.  Green  heart- 
wood  is  harder  than  sap-wood.  Resinous  heart-wood  is  very 
hard,  and  this  is  also  true  of  timber  which  has  fine  annual 
layers,  as  is  shown  especially  in  the  extremely  hard  resinous 
knots  often  seen  in  planks. 

The  resistance  which  timber  presents  to  the  axe  is  greatest  Resistance 
at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  fibres,  and  it  decreases  in  totheaxe 

&  °  .  and  the 

proportion  as  the  angle  becomes  more  acute.    It  is  least  when  saw. 
the  blade  of  the  axe  is  parallel  with  the  direction  of  the 
fibres'  length,  as  in  splitting. 

The  saw,  on  the  other  hand,  works  by  tearing  the  fibres, 
and  consequently  it  meets  with  most  resistance  in  loose- 
textured  timber  with  long  tough  fibres.  Such  timber  makes 
the  edge  of  the  saw  uneven.  In  close-grained  timber  with 
short  fibres  the  saw  works  easily,  and  the  edge  keeps  more 
even.  Consequently,  for  heavy  close-grained  timber  the  saw 
does  not  require  to  be  set  so  much.  In  certain  kinds  of 
timber  moisture  increases  the  toughness  of  the  fibres,  and  on 
this  account  unseasoned  timber  is  more  difficult  to  saw  than 
dry  wood. 

The  hardness  of  timber  is  very  important  in  all  cases 
where  it  is  exposed  to  blows,  concussions,  and  general  wear 
and  tear. 

For  ordinary  purposes  the  hardness  of  any  piece  of  wood 
may  be  tested  by  cutting  it  with  a  knife. 

The  hardest  timbers  of  all  are  lignum  vitse   and  ebony. 
The  ordinary  kinds  of  timber  may  be  classified  as  follows : 
Hard  :  hornbeam,  maple,  apple,  pear,  oak,  and  beech. 
Medium :  ash,  elm,  white-beam,  walnut,  birch,  lime,  and 
chestnut. 


48  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

Soft :  Scotch  fir,  spruce  fir,  larch,  alder,  aspen,  and  poplar. 
As  has,  however,  been  indicated  above,  spruce  fir  with  fine 
annual  layers  and  resinous  Scotch  fir  are  often  very  hard,  and 
they  might  thus  find  a  place  in  the  higher  class. 

4.  The  toughness  and  elasticity  of  timber.    A  piece 
of  timber  which  may  be  bent  without  breaking,  and  which 
does  not  resume  its  former  shape  when  the  bending  force  is 
removed,  is  said  to  be  tough;  if  it  does  resume  its  former 
shape,  it  is  said  to  be  elastic.    Generally  speaking,  both  these 
qualities  co-exist  in  all  timber,  but  one  is  usually  more  pre- 
dominant than  the  other,  according  to  the  kind  of  wood. 
Thus  some  timbers  are  said  to  be  elastic  and  others  tough. 

Unseasoned  wood  is  tougher  than  dry  wood,  and  what  it 
gains  in  elasticity  during  seasoning  it  loses  in  toughness. 
Damp  heat  increases  toughness ;  hence  hoops  and  sticks  are 
"  steamed  "  in  order  that  they  may  be  bent. 

As  a  general  rule  light  timber  is  tougher  than  heavy 
timber,  roots  are  tougher  than  stems ;  sap-wood  is  tougher 
than  heart- wood,  and  young  timber  is  tougher  than  old. 

The  toughest  timbers  are  the  following : — hornbeam,  elm, 
ash,  aspen,  birch,  juniper,  hazel,  osier,  maple,  and  white-beam. 

Lime,  alder,  beech,  and  the  heart-wood  of  oak  are  only 
moderately  tough. 

Elasticity  is  increased  by  seasoning,  and  is  generally  great 
ui  heavy  timbers.  It  is  of  great  importance  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  many  articles,  e.g.,  masts,  oars,  wooden  springs,  the 
handles  of  spades,  axes,  hammers,  etc. 

The  following  timbers  are  elastic:  elm,  ash,  aspen,  oak, 
spruce  fir,  birch,  maple,  and  poplar. 

Hornbeam,  alder,  and  Scotch  fir  are  less  elastic. 

5.  The  texture,  colour  and  smell  of  timber.  Knowledge 
of  these  qualities  is  very  important  in  connection  with  the 
recognition  of  different  kinds  of  timber,  and  in  estimating 
their  value. 


WOOD,    OE   TIMBER. 


49 


By  texture  is  understood  the  way  in  which  the  vessels, 
fibres,  medullary  rays  and  annual  layers  are  woven  or  con- 
nected together.  (See  fig.  1). 

Wood  as  it  appears  in  cross  section  is  said  to  be  end  way 
of  the  grain ;  as  it  appears  in  radial  and  tangential  section — 
parallel  with  the  fibres — it  is  said  to  be  length  way  of  the 
grain,  or  with  the  grain ;  and  as  it  appears  when  we  look 
across  the  fibres  at  right  angles  to  their  length,  it  is  said  to  be 
across  the  grain. 

We  distinguish  between  coarse  and  fine  texture  according  coarse  and 
to  the  quality  of  the  fibres,  vessels,  medullary  rays  &ndfine 
annual  layers,  which,  taken  all  together,  give  to  wood  its 
characteristic  appearance.     Similarly  we  speak  of  long-fibred 
and  of  short-fibred  texture,  according  as  the  wood  "  works  " 
with  long  or  short  shavings. 

The  colour  of  wood  varies  from  white  to  deep  black,  with  Different 
many  intermediate  shades  of  yellow,  red,  brown,  etc.,  depending  e^™™ 
on  the  kind  of  tree.     It  varies  not  only  in  different  kinds  of 
timber,  but  in  the  same  kind  of  timber,  and  even  in  the  same 
tree.     As  has  been  said  above,  the  heart-wood  is  always 
darker  than  the  sap-wood.     Certain  kinds  of  timber,  again, 
e.g.,  oak  and  mahogany,  become  darker  with  time. 

Our  ordinary  timbers  are  whitish,  yellowish,  brownish  or 
reddish,  and  are  not  so  highly  coloured  as  tropical  timbers, 
some  of  which  are  very  striking  in  colour. 

The  smell  peculiar  to  many  kinds  of  timber  is  a  mark  by  The  smeu 
which  they  may  sometimes  be  recognised.     This  characteristic  °fwood  due 
smell  does  not  proceed  from  the  wood  itself,  for  it  has  none. 
It  is  due  to  the  sap,  and  is  always  strongest  in  fresh  sappy 
wood  ;  though  seasoned  timber  sometimes  has  a  very  decided 
smell,  which  is  often  quite  unlike  that  of  the  unseasoned 
wood.     Needle-leaved  trees  have  a  strong  smell  of  turpentine, 
and  certain  broad-leaved  trees,  e.g.,  the  oak,  often  smell  of 
tannic  acid.     Many  trees  have  an  agreeable  smell,  e.g.,  the 
cedar,  juniper,  the  camphor-tree,  etc.     The   smell   of  some 


50 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


timber  remains  in  it  for  a  long  time,  and  communicates  itself 
to  food  kept  in  vessels  made  of  it. 

A  musty  smell  in  timber  is  a  sign  of  decay. 
6.  The  weight  or  specific  gravity  of  timber  is  very 
variable,  depending  as  it  does  on  a  number  of  different  cir- 
stances.  Hence  it  is  impossible  to  give  such,  definite 
statistics  under  this  head  as  can  be  given  in  the  case  of 
metals  and  many  other  substances.  We  have  to  take  into 
consideration  the  closeness  or  the  looseness  of  the  fibres, 
which  determines  the  hardness  or  density  of  the  wood ;  the 
presence  of  more  or  less  sap ;  the  climate  and  soil  in  which 
the  tree  has  grown  ;  its  age  ;  its  different  parts  ;  the  degree 
of  seasoning,  etc. 

Specific          The  specific  gravity  of  wood  properly  so  called,  i.e.,  of  the 

^kel'eUuiar  cellular  tissue   which   composes   it,   is  very  similar  in   all 

titsue.        timbers,  and  even  in  the  lightest  kinds  it  is  greater  than  that 

of  water.     Nevertheless,  most  timbers,  owing  to  their  porous 

nature,  are  lighter  than  water,  and  float  in  it.     This  is  the 

case  with  all  our  indigenous  trees  after  seasoning.     A  warm 

climate  produces  heavy  timber ;  and  the  heaviest  timbers, 

such  as  ebony  and  lignum  vitse,  are  found  in  the  tropics. 

The  presence  of  water  is  the  circumstance  which  most  affects 
the  weight  of  timber.  All  timbers  are  heavier  when  newly 
felled  than  after  seasoning.  Hence,  in  determining  the 

O  '  O 

specific  gravity  of  different  kinds  of  timber,  we  must  assume 
that  the  timber  is  fully  seasoned. 

The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  most  common  kinds  of 
timber  is  given  as  follows  by  competent  authorities : — 

NEWLY          SEAS-         |  NEWLY       SEAS- 

FELLED.       OXED.  FELLED.       O.\ED. 

The  Hornbeam   ...  1.08  0.72  !    The  Spruce  Fir       ...  0.73  0.47 

The  Common  Alder  0.82  0.53          The  Lime    0.74  0.45 

The  Elm 0.95  0.69  The  Common  Larch  0.76  0.62 

The  Apple           ...  1.10  0.75      j    The  Maple 0.90  0.66 

The  Common  Ash  0.92  0.75  \    The  White-beam    ...  1.04  0.86 


The  Aspen          ...    0.80  0.49 

The  Birch  ...    0.94  0.64 

The  Common  Beech  1.01  0.74 

The  Oak 1.10  0.8S 

The  Com.  Juniper     1.07  0.61 

The  Scotch  Fir  ...    0.70  0.52 


The  Pear     1.01  0.72 

The  Rowan 0.96  0.67 

The  Common  Walnut  0.91  0.68 

Ebony          —  1.20 

Mahogany —  0.81 

Lignum  vitas          ...      —  1.40 


WOOD,    OE   TIMBER.  51 

The  absolute  weight  per  cubic  foot  in  any  given  timber  is 
ascertained  by  multiplying  the  specific  gravity  given  above 
by  62.5  =  the  number  of  pounds  in  a  cubic  foot  of  water. 

7.  The  durability  of  timber.  This  and  the  circumstances 
which  favour  it  have  been  touched  on  in  connection  with 
the  sap,  with  seasoning,  with  decay,  and  the  means  of  its 
prevention. 

The   conditions   under   which   timber  is   used   have   the 
greatest   influence   on  its  durability.   .Thus,  timber  which 
is  kept  under  cover  and  protected  from  moisture   is  very 
durable,  and  may  last  for  many  centuries.     Some  kinds  of 
timber  are  extremely  durable  if  kept  under  water.     Thus,  The  dura~ 
the  oak  used  in  ancient  lake-dwellings  and  bridges,  or  found  ivoodunder 
in  bogs,  has  been  preserved  for  thousands  of  years.  water- 

If  timber  is  exposed  to  alternations  of  moisture  and  dry-  when  wood 
ness,  its  durability  is  diminished  ;    and  yet,  in  most  cases,  it  durabu. 
is  precisely  in  these  unfavourable  conditions  it  has  to  be  used. 

Hence   it  follows  that   it   is  impossible   to  give  precise  The  mo»t 

durable 
timbers. 


details  regarding  the  durability  of  timber.     Under  this  head  d"ra 


all  that  can  be  done  is  to  mention  the  trees  which  in  all 
circumstances  give  the  most  durable  timbers,  viz. :  the  oak, 
and  resinous,  close-grained  Scotch  fir  and  larch.  The  elm 
comes  next  to  these.  If  exposed  to  alternations  of  moisture 
and  dryness,  oak  is  said  to  last  one  hundred  years,  birch 
fifteen  years,  and  beech  not  more  than  ten.  Durability  is 
also  mentioned  in  the  description  of  different  kinds  of 
timber,  which  follows. 

II.  Characteristics  of  different  kinds  of  trees. 

Here  follows  an  enumeration  of  the  different  kinds  of 
wood  which  are  available  for  slojd  work,  together  with  a 
condensed  statement  of  their  properties,  in  order  that,  as  far 
as  is  possible  in  a  brief  description,  the  reader  may  be  made 
acquainted  with  each  kind  of  timber. 

[The  following  kinds  of  wood  can  be  easily  obtained  in 


52  HANDBOOK    OF   SLOJD. 

England,  and  are  therefore  specially  recommended  : — Scotch 
fir,  spruce  fir,  alder,  birch,  beech,  oak,  chestnut,  lime,  and 
poplar.  See  also  p.  204.— TRS.] 

1.    Needle-leaved  Trees. 

The  Scotch  fir  (Finns  sylvestris). — The  ripe  timber  is 
yellowish  white  or  reddish  white.  The  boundaries  of  the 
annual  concentric  layers  are  light  brown  in  the  heart-wood ; 
white  in  the  sap-wood.  It  is  the  heaviest,  hardest,  and  most 
resinous  of  all  the  needle-leaved  trees,  and  has  a  tolerably 
strong  smell  of  turpentine.  Its  resinous,  fine-grained  heart- 
wood  is  very  durable. 

The  spruce  fir  (Pinus  abies). — The  wood  is  yellowish 
white.  In  a  longitudinal  section  it  shows  dark  reddish 
streaks.  It  is  very  elastic,  and  is  easily  split  with  the  axe. 
As  it  contains  a  good  deal  of  resin,  it  resists  damp ;  though, 
being  less  resinous  than  the  pine,  it  is  more  easily  glued. 
Like  the  pine,  it  makes  excellent  timber.  Very  hard  knots, 
which  loosen  and  fall  out  when  the  wood  is  seasoned,  are, 
however,  of  frequent  occurrence  in  this  wood. 

The  common  larch  (Pinus  larix). — The  wood  of  this  tree 
is  reddish,  with  dark  annual  layers  and  white  sap-wood. 
It  warps  but  little,  and  does  not  readily  become  worm-eaten. 
It  is  more  durable  than  the  Scotch  fir  and  the  spruce  fir. 

The  common  juniper  (Juniperus  communis). — The  wood 
of  the  young  bushes  is  white,  and  it  deepens  from  yellow  to 
brown  as  it  increases  in  age.  It  is  hard,  tough,  close,  strong, 

and  durable,  and  whenever  it  can  be  obtained  lame  enough 
.    . 

it  is  much  in  request  for  slojd  articles.     The  juniper  has  a 
peculiar  and  agreeable  smell. 

2.  Broad-Leaved  Trees. 

The  hornbeam  (Carpinus  betulus). — The  wood  of  this 
tree  is  white,  very  hard,  heavy,  close  and  very  tough.  The 
medullary  rays  are  very  little  darker  than  the  wood,  and  are 
not  easily  distinguished.  They  are  curved,  appearing  in  a 


WOOD,    OR    TIMBER.  53 

longitudinal  section  like  narrow  inconspicuous  flecks.  The. 
wood  is  very  difficult  to  split.  It  dries  slowly  and  warps 
easily.  It  is  very  durable  if  kept  dry,  and  is  a  favourite 
timber  for  slojd  work. 

The  common  alder  (Alnus  glutinosa). — The  wood  is  whit- 
ish or  brownish-yellow,  often  deepening  to  brown,  and  in 
the  newly-felled  tree  light  red.  The  annual  layers  are  diffi- 
cult to  recognise ;  the  medullary  rays  are  rather  broad,  and 
brown  in  colour.  The  timber  is  only  of  medium  hardness, 
and  is  neither  very  tough  nor  very  elastic ;  it  splits  readily, 
and  does  not  crack  or  warp  easily.  It  is  very  durable  if  con- 
stantly kept  wet,  but  it  is  of  low  durability  if  exposed  to 
alternations  in  the  degree  of  moisture.  If  felled  at  the  wrong 
time  it  is  speedily  attacked  by  worms.  Its  close  and  even 
texture  make  it  good  timber  for  slojd  work. 

The  hoary-leaved  alder  (Alnus  incana)  furnishes  timber 
which  is  whiter,  finer,  and  closer  than  the  preceding. 

The  elm  (  Ulmus  montana,  U.  campestris). — The  colour  of 
the  young  wood  in  general,  and  of  the  sap-wood  in  older  trees, 
is  whitish-yellow.  The  old  heart-wood  is  reddish-brown, 
streaked  and  veined.  The  inner  boundary  of  the  annual 
layers  is  somewhat  lighter  in  colour  and  looser  in  texture 
than  the  rest,  and  has  visible  pores.  The  medullary  rays  are 
very  narrow  and  numerous,  giving  to  this  timber  in  longi- 
tudinal section  a  dotted  and  streaked  appearance.  This 
timber  is  moderately  fine  in  fibre,  tough,  hard,  given  to  warp, 
difficult  to  split,  and  not  liable  to  the  attacks  of  worms.  Its 
durability  under  all  circumstances  is  very  great.  It  is  often 
beautifully  marked. 

The  common  ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior). — The  colour  of 
the  young  wood  is  white ;  of  the  older,  yellowish  brown, 
deepening  almost  to  brown  in  the  heart-wood.  The  medul- 
lary rays  are  not  easily  distinguished.  The  annual  layers  are 
generally  broad,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  oak,  the  large  pores 
on  their  inner  edge  render  them  very  conspicuous.  This 


54  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

timber  is  tough,  elastic,  very  hard,  easily  split,  not  liable  to 
crack,  and,  if  kept  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  extremely  durable. 
If  exposed  to  the  open  air  it  is  of  low  durability.  It  is  much 
esteemed  for  its  strength  and  toughness,  and  is  used  with 
advantage  for  springs  of  all  kinds,  tool  handles,  etc.,  etc. 
The  young  wood  is  used  for  barrel-hoops,  etc. 

The  aspen  (Populus  tremula). — The  wood  is  white,  with 
coarse  annual  rings.  It  is  fine  in  texture ;  tough,  easily 
split,  and  warps  but  little.  It  is  very  durable  if  kept  under 
cover  or  in  the  ground.  It  is  not  of  much  use  in  slojd  work, 
and  in  Sweden  it  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches. 

[The  poplar  (Populus). — The  colour  of  the  wood  is  a  yellow 
or  brownish  white.  The  annual  rings  are  a  little  darker  on 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  and  are  therefore  distinct.  The 
texture  is  uniform,  and  there  are  no  large  medullary  rays. 
The  wood  is  light,  soft,  easily  worked,  and  does  not  splinter. 
When  kept  dry  it  is  tolerably  durable,  and  it  is  not  liable  to 
shrink. — TRS.] 

The  common  bireh  (Betula  alba). — The  wood  of  the 
young  tree  is  white.  Older  wood  is  reddish  white  in  colour. 
The  medullary  rays  are  very  narrow  and  scarcely  distinguish- 
able. The  timber  is  tolerably  hard,  and  very  tough ;  it  dries 
very  slowly,  and  swells  easily.  It  is  very  durable  if  kept  dry, 
but  is  of  low  durability  if  exposed  to  the  open  air,  and  is  very 
apt  to  become  worm-eaten. 

The  quality  of  birch  varies  very  much,  and  depends  greatly 
on  climate  and  soil.  Birch  grown  in  favourable  soil  is 
straight  in  fibre,  easily  split  and  easily  worked: — Birch 
grown  in  dry  and  stony  ground  or  in  marshy  places  is  crook- 
ed in  fibre  and  more  or  less  knotty,  gnarled  and  cross- 
grained,  and  difficult  to  split.  Timber  of  this  kind  is  beauti- 
fully marked.  In  most  parts  of  Sweden  birch  furnishes  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  wood  used  in  slojd,  and  takes  the 


WOOD,    OR    TIMBER.  55 

place  of  the  beech  and  the  hornbeam  of  southern  Sweden  and 
southern  countries. 

The  common  beech  (Fagus  sylvatica). — The  wood  in  the 
young  tree  is  light  brown;  old  wood  is  very  dark.  The 
medullary  rays  are  large,  glossy,  and  dark  brown,  and  the 
general  colour  of  the  wood  is  uniform.  The  concentric  annual 
layers  are  not  specially  conspicuous,  but  they  are  easily 
distinguished.  Beech  timber  is  hard,  close,  heavy,  and  easily 
split,  especially  in  the  direction  of  the  medullary  rays.  It  is 
inelastic  and  rather  brittle.  It  dries  very  slowly,  and  warps 
easily.  It  is  very  durable  under  water  and  when  kept  dry, 
but  if  exposed  to  varying  degrees  of  moisture  it  is  the  least 
durable  of  all  timbers.  It  is  highly  valued  for  its  hardness, 
and  much  used  for  barrels. 

The  oak  ( Quercus  robur). — The  sap-wood  and  the  wood  in 
young  stems  is  nearly  white.  The  heart-wood  in  older  trees 
is  brownish.  The  large  pores  on  the  inner  edges  of  the  annual 
layers,  and  the  broad,  yellowish  brown,  frequently  glossy, 
medullary  rays  are  specially  noticeable.  This  timber  is 
peculiarly  hard,  strong,  and  durable.  It  is  not  affected  by 
alternations  in  the  degree  of  moisture,  and  it  is  in  all  cir- 
cumstances the  most  durable  of  all  our  timbers.  It  dries 
slowly,  and  is  very  apt  to  warp  unless  thoroughly  well 
seasoned.  After  being  in  water — especially  salt  water — for 
many  years,  its  colour  becomes  bluish  black.  The  oak  fur- 
nishes better  timber  than  any  other  tree  of  Northern  Europe. 

[The  chestnut  (Castanea  vesca). — The  colour  of  the  sap- 
wood  is  yellowish  white ;  that  of  the  heart- wood  is  light  to 
dark  brown.  The  wood  of  the  chestnut  resembles  that  of 
the  oak  in  colour,  but  it  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  it 
by  the  absence  of  the  broad  medullary  rays  which  are  found 
in  the  oak.  The  timber  is  heavy,  hard,  elastic,  and  very 
durable  if  kept  uniformly  either  dry  or  wet.  If  subjected 
to  variations  in  the  degree  of  moisture  it  is  of  low  durability. 
— Tils.] 


56  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

The  lime  (Tilia). — The  wood  is  usually  white,  soft,  and 
light.  The  medullary  rays  are  extremely  fine,  and  the  annual 
layers  can  scarcely  be  distinguished.  It  does  not  warp  easily. 
It  is  of  low  durability,  and  is  not  very  serviceable. 

The  maple  (Acer  platanoides). — The  wood  is  white,  with 
very  narrow  and  numerous  medullary  rays  of  a  faint  brown 
colour,  which  give  it  a  beautifully  "  waved  "  lustrous  appear- 
ance. The  annual  layers  are  inconspicuous.  The  wood  is 
uniform  in  texture,  hard,  strong,  tough,  and  difficult  to  split ; 
it  presents  a  glossy  surface  to  the  plane,  and  does  not  crack 
or  warp  readily.  In  consequence  of  these  good  qualities,  it  is 
much  sought  after  for  slojd  timber. 

The  white-beam  (Sorb  us  Scandica). — The  wood  of  the 
young  tree  is  yellowish.  Older  wood  is  light  brown  or  red- 
dish in  colour.  It  is  frequently  speckled  or  veined.  This 
timber  is  fine  and  uniform  in  texture,  hard,  close,  and  very 
tough.  It  warps  but  little,  and  is  much  valued  as  slojd 
timber. 

The  pear  and  the  apple  (Pyrus). — The  wood  of  the 
young  tree  is  nearly  white.  Older  wood  is  dark  brown, 
sometimes  red  in  colour,  and  often  streaked.  It  is  very  fine 
and  close  in  texture,  hard,  heavy  and  tough.  The  medullary 
rays  are  small,  and  they  and  the  annual  layers  are  incon- 
spicuous. It  can  be  cut  easily  in  all  directions,  and  does  not 
splinter,  owing  to  the  uniformity  of  its  texture. 

The  wood  of  the  apple  tree  has  a  general  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  pear,  but  it  is  closer,  redder,  and  harder — indeed 
the  apple  furnishes  one  of  the  hardest  timbers.  The  wood  of 
the  wild  pear  or  apple  is  superior  to  that  of  the  cultivated 
varieties.  The  wood  of  both  trees  is  much  esteemed. 

The  rowan  (Sorbus  Aucuparia). — The  wood  is  whitish  or 
light  brown.  In  some  respects  it  resembles  the  white-beam, 
but  it  is  not  so  good.  As  slojd  timber  it  may  often  rank 
with  the  birch. 

The  common  walnut  (Juglans    regia). — The  wood  of 


WOOD,    OR   TIMBER.  57 

the  young  tree  is  almost  white,  loose  in  texture,  and  soft. 
Older  wood  is  brownish  grey  or  dark  brown,  and  is  often 
beautifully  marked.  It  is  hard  and  strong,  and  generally 
close  in  texture,  though,  like  the  oak,  it  has  particularly 
large  pores.  The  medullary  rays  are  almost  invisible.  It 
dries  very  slowly,  and  shrinks  a  good  deal.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  European  timbers,  and  is  extensively  used. 


The  following  tropical  timbers  may  also  be  mentioned : — 

Ebony  (Diospyros). — From  Africa  and  the  East  Indies. 
The  sap-wood  is  quite  white,  the  heart-wood  generally  quite 
black,  though  sometimes  brownish  black  with  white  streaks 
and  flecks  towards  its  inner  edge,  which  detract  from  the 
value  of  the  wood.  Its  texture  is  so  uniform  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  distinguish  the  annual  layers  or  the  medullary 
rays.  The  timber  is  brittle,  but  very  hard,  close  and  heavy. 
On  account  of  the  three  last  named  qualities,  and  its  beauty, 
it  is  much  esteemed,  but  it  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  to 
any  great  extent. 

Mahogany  (Swietenia  Mahogani). — From  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  Other  kinds  of  timber  are  also  sold 
under  this  name.  When  fresh  the  wood  is  generally  reddish 
or  brownish  yellow,  but  it  gradually  darkens,  and  finally 
becomes  almost  black.  It  has  narrow,  rather  inconspicuous 
annual  layers,  and  small  but  distinctly  visible  pores.  In 
longitudinal  section  the  figuring  of  this  timber  is  very 
beautiful.  It  has  fleck-like  or  pyramidal  markings,  with  a 
fine  satin-like  lustre.  It  varies  much  in  hardness,  weight, 
closeness,  and  general  texture  in  different  varieties.  Ma- 
hogany is  under  all  circumstances  very  durable.  It  warps 
but  little  ;  shrinks  less  than  any  other  timber  ;  and  is  never 
attacked  by  worms.  It  is  highly  esteemed  as  timber,  and  is 
very  extensively  used. 

Lignum  vitse  (Guaiacum  officinale). — From  Central 
America.  The  wood  is  greenish  or  blackish  brown,  with 


58  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

yellowish  and  dark  streaks  in  longitudinal  section.  It  is 
heavy,  resinous,  very  close-grained,  and  almost  as  hard  as 
metal.  It  is  twisted  in  fibre,  very  difficult  to  split,  and  there- 
fore not  easy  to  work.  Its  extraordinary  hardness  and  great 
durability  make  it  valuable  in  the  case  of  articles  which  are 
exposed  to  much  wear  and  tear. 


59 


CHAPTER  III. 

TOOLS. 
A.    Choice  of  Tools. 

The  tools  used  in  slojd  teaching  must  be  chosen  with  due  choice  of 
regard  to  the  pupil's  capacity.  They  ought  to  be  neither  ^/teach- 
too  large  nor  too  heavy,  but  such  as  can  be  easily  handled,  tw- 
it might  perhaps  be  considered  advisable  to  use  tools  slighter 
in  make  than  those  generally  employed  in  slqjd-carpentry, 
and  the  question  might  be  raised  whether  such  small  tools  as 
are  to  be  found  in  "children's  tool-boxes"  should  not  be 
procured.  Tools  of  this  description  are,  however,  usually  too 
inferior  to  be  taken  into  consideration  at  all ;  and,  if  specially 
ordered  in  a  good  quality,  they  would  be  much  dearer  than 
those  sold  in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade.  This  applies 
particularly  to  tools  made  of  iron  or  steel.  Moreover,  such 
small  tools  are  particularly  difficult  to  keep  in  order,  because 
they  are  very  slight  and  brittle.  And  further,  a  little 
experience  in  teaching  proves  that  children  from  eleven  to 
fourteen  years  of  age  require  tools  quite  as  substantial  and 
durable  as  their  elders.  Whether  or  not  a  tool  is  too  heavy 
depends  upon  the  person  who  uses  it,  for  one  child  may  have 
the  strength  required  to  use  a  much  heavier  tool  than  can  be 
used  by  another.  In  connection  with  this  it  should  be  noted, 
that  if  children  are  not  accustomed,  while  receiving  instruction, 
to  use  and  to  keep  in  order  the  tools  used  in  ordinary  life,  it 
will  be  very  difficult  for  them  to  manage  them  when  they  are 
older.  It  may  be  objected  that  if  children  use  the  ordinary 
knife,  saw,  axe,  etc.,  they  may  easily  hurt  themselves ;  but 
this  is  quite  as  likely  to  happen  with  "  toy  tools."  Besides, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  insist  that  the  children  pay 


60  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

attention  to  the  manner  of  using  the  tools,  and  use  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  do  not  hurt  themselves. 

.  Although  we  maintain  that  the  tools  used  in  slojd  teaching 
should  be  of  the  size  generally  employed,  it  does  not  therefore 
follow  that  the  largest  size  is  to  be  selected,  but  rather  that 
the  smallest  should  be  chosen,  such  as  the  little  hands  of  the 
youthful  pupil  can  efficiently  wield  without  much  trouble. 
The  handle  of  the  knife  should  not  be  larger  than  can  be 
grasped, though  the  blade  maybe  of  the  usual  size.  The  smooth- 
ing plane  should  be  7£  inches  long  and  2f  inches  broad.  The 
trying  plane  should  not  be  unnecessarily  long ;  22  inches  is  long 
enough,  though  the  breadth  ought  to  be  3£  inches,  or  broad 
enough  for  an  iron  of  1\  inches.  If  the  trying  plane  is 
narrower,  it  is  difficult  to  plane  a  surface  of  any  size,  and 
the  smaller  tool  would  occasion  more  work  and  trouble  than 
one  of  the  dimensions  given  above.  The  handles  of  chisels 
and  similar  tools  should  not  be  larger  than  is  necessary. 
The  axe  should  not  weigh  more  than  2  Ibs.  The  frames  of  the 
bow  saws  should  be  of  the  lighter  description  of  those  used 
in  carpentry. 

As  one  of  the  aims  of  slb'jd  teaching  is  to  develop  the 
physical  powers  of  the  pupil,  each  separate  exercise  must 
lead  up  to  the  next  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  proceeds 
from  easier  to  more  difficult  work.  But  the  most  perfect 
gradation  of  exercises  arranged  on  this  principle  will  not  en- 
sure success  if  the  teacher  does  not  know  how  to  choose 
suitable  wood  for  the  pupils'  work,  and  does  not  take  care 
that  they  have  good  tools  in  good  condition.  As  we  demand 
of  the  pupils  work  well  executed  and  accurate  in  all  its 
details,  we  are  bound  to  see  that  they  are  provided  with 
suitable  wood  and  good  tools. 

As  regards  suitable  wood,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chapter 
II.  It  need  be  merely  named  here  that  the  wood  must  be 
Bound,  well  seasoned,  straight  in  fibre,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
free  from  knote. 


TOOLS.  61 

The  tools  selected  should  always  be  of  the  best  quality,  Quality  of 
even  if  these  should  prove  rather  more  expensive.     Instead  of 
buying  a  large  number  of  inferior  tools  at  once,  a  few  good 
ones  should  be  procured.     But  it  is  not  enough  to  buy  good 
tools,  they  must  be  kept  in  good  order.     Ability  to  keep 
tools  in  order  is  an  indispensable  qualification  in  a  good 
teacher  of  slojd,  for  if  he  lacks  skill  in  this   respect   his  Good  tool* 
teaching  will  also  lack  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  success.  ™0t£pen 
There  are  two  rather  complicated  tools  which  are  particularly 
difficult  to  keep  in  order,  i.e.,  the  plane  and  the  saw.     A 
great  deal  of  energy  is  wasted  in  slojd  teaching  if  the  pupils 
work  with  badly  set  planes  or  with  blunt  saws.     Hence 
special  care  should  be  bestowed  on  these  tools. 

Practice  in  grinding  tools  and  keeping  them  in  order  must  Grinding 
be  included  in  the  instruction  given.     Great  demands  in  this  tools' 
respect  must  not  be  made  at  first,  but  they  may  be  gradu- 
ally increased  until  the  pupils,  at  least  towards  the  end  of 
the  course,  are  able  to  grind  a  plane  iron  and  sharpen  a 
saw.     If  this  is  expected  of  the  pupils,  so  much  the  more 
must  it  be  demanded  of  the  teacher. 

The  description  which  follows  attempts  to  give,  to  some 
extent,  detailed  knowledge  of  the  tools  which  are  used  in 
educational  wood  -  slojd,  together  with  instructions  for 
keeping  them  in  good  condition.  The  illustrations  accom- 
panying the  description  are  taken  from  selected  tools  and 
appliances,  and  the  scale  is  indicated  by  the  fraction  after 
the  name  of  the  figure.  Want  of  space  prevents  the  insertion 
of  complete  representations  of  all  the  tools,  etc.  A  few 
illustrations  of  this  kind,  particularly  of  benches  and  of  a 
cupboard  for  tools,  have  been  added  on  separate  plates  at 
the  end  of  the  book,  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  wish  to 
make  these  articles.  The  technical  names  are,  generally 
speaking,  those  employed  in  carpentry  ;  but  a  proportion  of 
the  names  of  tools,  exercises,  and  methods  of  manipulation, 
have  originated  and  been  adopted  in  the  course  of  the  de- 
velopment of  slojd  teaching. 


62 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


B.  Appliances  for  holding  the  work. 

1.  The  bench  is  the  article  most  frequently  used  for 
holding  the  work  steady  during  its  execution.  It  is  the 
most  indispensable  part  of  the  apparatus  required  for  slojd 


A  complete 
bench. 


Fig.  5.     Bench.     Vao- 

A  bench  top,  B  front  bench  vice,  C  back  bench  vice,  D  bench  well,  E  bench 
drawer  or  till,  F  front  rail  of  bench  box,  aa  bench  pegs  or  hooks,  66  holes  for 
bench  pegs,  c  vice  tongue  or  key,  ee  screw-bolts,  /  back  rail  of  bench  box,  gg  vice- 
screws,  h  front  rail  of  bench. 

The  Single  Bench  (Fig.  5)  is  practically  a  strongly  con- 
structed table,  heavy  enough  to  stand  steady  during  the  work. 

The  bench  top  consists  of  a  strong,  hard,  close  piece  of 
plank  about  3  inches  thick.  For  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
work  fast  it  is  provided  either  with  one  screw  or  two,  ar- 
ranged in  a  particular  way,  called  the  back  bench  vice  and  the 
front  bench  vice.  A  complete  bench  (Fig.  5)  has  both ;  one 
Back  bench  of  simpler  construction  (Fig.  8)  has  only  the  back  bench  vice. 
At  one  end  of  the  bench-top,  to  the  right  of  the  worker,  a 
rectangular  piece  is  cut  away  from  the  anterior  edge,  its 
length  being  parallel  to  the  edge,  and  where  this  piece  has 
been  cut  away  a  prismatical  frame- work  is  moved  by  the 
turning  of  a  wood-screw.  The  nut  into  which  this  screw 
catches  is  firmly  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  bench  top.  The 
frame-work  is  directed  partly  by  the  screw,  partly  by 
separate  bolts,  and  the  screw  is  held  fast  by  means  of  a  wedge 
or  flat  pin,  which  catches  like  a  fork  in  a  groove  on  the  screw. 


TOOLS. 


63 


This  arrangement  is  called  the  back  bench  vice.  The  frame- 
work is  perforated  perpendicularly  by  one  or  more  square 
holes,  from  4  to  6  inches  apart,  and  a  row  of  similar  holes  is 
introduced  in  the  bench  top,  in  a  straight  line  with  those  in 
the  frame-work.  When  a  plank  is  to  be  held  in  a  horizontal 
position  on  the  bench,  a  bench  peg  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  the 
bench  vice,  and  another  in  a  hole  in  the  bench  top  at  a  dis- 
tance corresponding  to  the  length  of  the  plank,  and  the  screw 
is  applied.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  head  of  the  bench 
peg  does  not  rise  above  the  upper  surface  of  the  wood,  and 
also  that,  during  planing,  the  iron  of  the  plane  does  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  head  of  the  peg,  a  fault  often  committed 
through  carelessness  by  beginners. 

The  bench  pegs  (Fig.  6)  are  rectangular  pieces  of  iron  from 
8  to  10  inches  long,  which  fit  rather  loosely  into  the  holes  of 
the  bench  top,  and  are  provided  on  one  side  with  a  steel 
spring,  in  order  that  they  may  remain  fixed  at 
any  desired  height.  The  head  of  the  peg  is 
double-grooved,  to  hold  the  work  securely.  To 
make  room  for  the  head  of  the  peg,  the  holes  in 
the  bench  top  are  usually  sufficiently  enlarged 
at  the  upper  end  to  permit  the  head  to  be 
pushed  down,  until  its  top  is  level  with  the 
bench  top. 

The  arrangement  of  the  screw,  to  the  left  of  Front  bench 
the  worker,  is  termed  the  front   bench  vice.     It   is  much  mce- 
simpler  in  construction  than  the  back  bench  vice.      Fig.    5 
shows  its  construction.     A  movable  piece  of  wood  is  placed 
in  front  of  the  end  of  the  screw,  called  the  vice  tongue  or  key 

(Fig.  7),  partly  to  hold  the  work 
more  securely,  partly  to  prevent 
its  being  injured  by  the  screw. 
When  a  long  piece  of  wood  is 
fastened  into  the  front  bench 
vice  for  edge-planing,  it  is  ad- 
Fig.  7.  Vice  Tongue  or  Key.  Vio- visable  to  allow  the  under  edge 


Q 


Fig.  6. 
Bench  Peg.    V 


64 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


to  rest  upon  a  little  block  on  a  swivel,  attached  to  the  under 
side  of  the  bench  top.  If  the  screws  do  not  turn  easily,  the 
friction  may  be  reduced  by  rubbing  them  well  with  pul- 
verised plumbago. 

On  the  side  of  the  bench  farthest  from  the  worker  is  a 
trough  or  channel,  called  the  bench  ivell,  in  which  tools  not 
in  actual  use  may  be  laid.  Triangular  pieces  of  wood,  firmly 
attached  to  the  ends  of  this  well,  facilitate  the  sweeping  out 
of  shavings,  etc. 

The  different  portions  of  the  bench  are  fastened  together 
by  dovetailing,  mortising,  and  iron  screws. 

The  bench  top  rests  upon  feet  or  rails,  and  it  is  often 
furnished  on  the  under  side  with  a  drawer  or  till.  A  similar 
drawer  may  be  connected  with  the  rails. 

The  wood  used  for  the  bench  top  should  be  oak,  ash,  beech, 
or  hard  pine  ;  for  the  screws,  horn-beam  or  "  figured  "  birch ; 
for  the  well  and  the  rails,  fir  or  pine. 

The  complete  bench  described  above  is  too  large  for 
general  use  in  school  slojd,  the  space  for  which  is  usually 
limited.  As  only  one  person  can  advantageously  work  at  it, 
it  is  also  too  expensive. 


Fig.  8.    Single  Bench.     l/*o- 
Top,  5  feet  long  by  1 J  feet  broad.    Height,  2  feet  7  inches.    Na.is  pattern. 

The  bench  represented  in  Fig.  8  is  more  suitable  for  schools 


TOOLS. 


65 


where  many  benches  are  required.  It  is  at  once  simple  and  Bench  after 
practical.  It  takes  up  little  space,  and  it  can  be  procured  for 
one-half — indeed  for  one-fourth — of  the  cost  of  the  bench 
first  described.  It  is  furnished  with  a  back  bench  vice  only, 
consisting  of  a  piece  of  wood  moving  on  bolts,  and  worked 
by  a  screw  fixed  with  a  forked  ^uedge  to  the  movable  front 
jaw  of  the  vice.  The  bolts  must  be  firmly  inserted  in  the 
detached  portion  of  the  vice,  and  must  have  their  anterior 
ends  made  fast  in  a  cross-piece ;  otherwise  the  movable  por- 
tion of  the  vice  will  not  move  easily  and  surely  backwards 
and  forwards  by  means  of  the  screw.  To  fasten  a  piece  of 
wood  quite  steadily  in  the  vice  it  should  be  balanced  as  nearly 
as  possible  on  the  top  of  the  screw.  When  this  is  not  done, 
it  has  a  tendency  to  fall  to  one  side,  and  if  this  frequently 
happens  the  vice  will  finally  be  destroyed. 


•2  S 

•  m  a  m  •  m  "  ~  

™™pj                                prrvrr: 

-Pi 

^ 

_::I:::LJ                                lEnw 

NjllHre.. 

:,". 

IK 

^-,,4^    /'     I'     i  .  if     if     /f    jfniiIJ|,C 

I? 

1    '  1 

"  '  "  '  '  '  ''  rt  '  *•                                                                  'li'n'lu'Vitfrttti 

F 

4W  -too  can* 


Fig.  9.    Double  Bench. 

This  bench  may  also  be  adapted  for  two  persons  by  intro-  Adjustable 
ducing  a  screw  in  each  end  of  the  bench  top,  as  indicated  in  benehf 
Fig.  9.     The  bench  top  in  this  instance  ought  to  be  rather 
broader  than  in  the  preceding.     The  height  of  the  bench 
ought  to  be  adapted  to  the  height  of  the  worker,  and  ac- 
cordingly separate  pieces  of  wood,  provided  with  hinges,  are 
attached  to  the  upper  or  lower  cross-bars  of  the  feet,  and  by 
the  raising  or  letting  down  of  these  the  bench  top  is  raised 
or  lowered. 


66  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

R.  Trainer-*      Fig.  10  is  a  bench  of  English  manufacture,  well  adapted  for 
*"**•         slojd  work,  and  is  known  as  R  Trainer's  Improved  Bench. 

— »  h 


Trainer's  Bench 


A  bench  top,  B  tool  tray  or  bench  well,  C  back  strip,  d  tail  (or  back)  bench 
vice,  «  side  (or  front)  bench  vice,  /  plane  rest  or  fillet,  g  Merrill's  bench  stop, 
hh  bench  pegs,  n  joint  bolts,  MM  fore  legs,  JVJV  rear  legs,  0  front  bottom  rail, 
P  back  bottom  rail. 

This  bench  is  constructed  so  as  to  be  portable.  It  consists 
of  a  hard  wood  top  A,  4£  inches  thick,  made  of  beech  or 
birch,  and  is  supported  by  a  strong  framework  MM  NN  PO 
made  of  fir,  and  bolted  and  framed  together.  The  forelegs 
MM  are  "  strutted,"  in  order  to  prevent  the  framework  from 
shaking  loose  through  constant  use  and  pressure.  The  bench 
is  5  ft.  long,  and  2  ft.  wide  ;  and  it  can  be  made  from  2  ft.  6 
in.  to  3  ft.  high. 

The  side  or  front  bench  vice,  e,  attached  to  the  bench  is 
made  of  metal,  and  is  called  "  Crossley  and  Macgregor's  Patent 
Instantaneous  Grip  Vice."  The  tail  or  back  bench  vice,  d,  is 
of  German  pattern,  and  acts  as  a  cramp  vice  in  conjunction 
with  the  bench  pegs  hh.  Only  the  screw  part  of  this  vice  is 
made  of  metal. 

As  was  said  above,  this  bench  is  well  adapted  for  slojd 
work.  It  stands  firmly  in  position  without  being  screwed  to 

*  For  prices  of  this  bench  see  p.  215. 


WOOD,    OE   TIMBER. 


67 


the  floor ;  its  vices,  pegs,  and  stops  are  all  new  designs,  and 
being  made  of  metal,  they  are  easy  to  work,  and  do  not 
readily  get  out  of  order.    The  space  Z  underneath  is  specially 
constructed  to  admit  of  the  fitting  up  of  lookers  and  drawers. 
The  Holdfast  is  a  simple  appliance  which  is  often  used  to 
secure  pieces  of  wood  to  the  bench  in  sawing,  boring,  chiselling, 
etc.     The  holdfast  (Fig.  11),  con- 
sists of  a  round  iron  or  steel  rod, 
furnished  at  the  upper  end  with 
a  strong  arm.     It  is  inserted  in  a 
hole  bored  in  the  bench  top,  the 
diameter  of  which  is  very  little 
larger  than  that  of  the  cylindri- 
cal portion  of  the  holdfast.     The 
piece  of  work  is  laid  under  the 
arm,  and  secured  by   a   stroke         Fig.  11.    Holdfast.  V8 
from  the  mallet  on  the   heel,  in  the   direction   a,  and  is 
loosened  by  a  stroke  in  the  direction  6.       The  holdfast  may 
therefore  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  back  bench  vice. 

The  shooting  board  is  a  contrivance  which  may  be 
advantageously  used  when  a  partially  planed  piece  of  wood 
has  to  be  squared  up  at  right  angles  to  a  plane  surface  or  a 
straight  edge. 

The  shooting-board  (Fig.  12)  consists  of  a  piece  of  hard 
pine  1J  inches  thick,  8  inches  broad,  and  from  2  to  2|  feet 
long,  on  one  side  of  which  there  is  a  rebate,  which  serves  as 
a  guide  to  the  trying  plane  when  in  action.  At  the  further 
end  there  is  a  smooth  rectangular  block,  the  inner  side  of 
which  is  carefully 
secured  at  right 
angles  to  the  re- 
bate of  the  plane 
rest.  Under  this 
plane  rest  a  groove 
is  hollowed  out,  in  Kg.  12.  Shooting-board,  Vis- 

rvrrlpr  i'hat  the  shaV-          a.  Plane  rest,  b.  Block  for  square  shooting,  c.  Rest  for 
wood,  d.  Rebate  and  groove,  e.  Block  for  mitre  shooting  at 

ings  may  not  pre-  an  angle  of  45*. 


68  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

vent  the  plane  from  lying  close  to  the  rebate  during  work. 
Instead  of  a  rebate  made  in  a  thick  piece  of  wood,  two  pieces 
may  be  fastened  together,  a  narrower  above  a  broader  piece. 
In  this  way  a  rebate  will  be  formed.  Before  they  are  fas- 
tened together,  the  under  part  of  the  inner  edge  of  the  top 
piece  must  be  cut  away  so  as  to  form  the  groove  for  shavings. 

When  the  shooting-board  is  in  use,  it  is  secured  between 
two.  bench  pegs.  The  piece  of  wood  which  is  to  be  squared 
is  held  and  pressed  against  the  trying-plane  with  the  left 
hand,  the  plane  being  directed  by  the  right.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  plane  anything  off  the  edge  of  the  rebate,  or  to 
hurt  the  fingers. 

The  shooting-board  may  also  be  used  for  mitre  shooting 
pieces  of  wood  which  are  to  be  fastened  together  at  an  angle 
of  45°,  by  placing  before  the  block  for  square-shooting  a 
triangular  block  whose  anterior  edge  forms  an  angle  of  45° 
with  the  edge  of  the  rebate.  See  Fig.  12. 


II.  Handserews. 

Handscrews  are  used  to  secure  the  work  to  the  bench, 
and  to  hold  several  pieces  of  work  fast  while  a  drawing  is 
being  made  or  while  glue  is  drying.  The  bench  itself,  when 
not  otherwise  engaged,  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  the 
case  last  named. 

Handscrews  are  made  of  wood  or  of  iron,  and  are  of 
various  sizes. 

Wooden  handserews  (Figs.  13,  14),  consist  of  three 
straight  pieces  of  wood,  two  of  which  are  joined  to  the  third 
on  the  same  side,  and  at  right  angles  to  it.  Horn-beam  or 
tough  birch  is  the  best  wood  for  the  purpose.  A  strong 
wooden  screw  passes  through  one  of  the  parallel  arms  and 
gives  the  necessary  pressure. 

As  the  handscrew  is  sometimes  subjected  to  a  greater 
strain  than  the  construction  just  described  can  bear,  it  is 
often  strengthened  by  an  iron  rod.  (See  Fig.  14.) 


TOOLS. 


69 


Fig.  13.  Handscrew. 


Fig.  14.  Handscrew. 


Fig.  15.    Adjustable 
Handscrew.   -fa. 


When  the  screw  is  applied,  one  hand  only  should  grasp  the 
handle,  and  the  other  should  take  hold  of  the  screw  either 
above  or  below  the  nut.  Otherwise,  if  the  pressure  is  great, 
the  screw  may  break.  If  the  screw  should  go  off  the 
straight  during  the  process,  a  light  blow  from  the  mallet  on 
the  lower  part  will  put  it  right.  A  piece  of  wood  should 
always  be  laid  under  the  point  of  the  screw,  to  prevent 
marks  on  the  work. 

[The  English  hand- 
screw  (Fig.  16)  differs 
from  the  Swedish 

Q 

handscrew  in  having 
two  screws  a  a  in- 
stead of  one.  These 
screws  work  in  oppo- 
site directions,through 
two  square  wooden 
cheeks,  b  b.  —  Tus.] 


Fig.  16.       English  Handscrew. 
a  a  screws,  &  6  cheeks. 


Fie:.  17.    Iron  Handscrew, 
or  Thumbscrew  cramp,  i. 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


Thumbscrew  cramps  are  now  made 
of  wrought  iron.  This  gives  strength 
without  weight  or  clumsiness.  These 
screws  are  very  useful,  and  easily 
managed.  (See  Fig.  17). 

When  broad  pieces  of  wood  have  to 
be  glued  together,  and  the  handscrews 
already  described  are  not  large  enough, 
and  the  bench  is  not  available,  use  is 
made  of  a  screw  in  which  a  movable 
block  is  substituted  for  one  of  the 
parallel  arms.  Such  screws  are  called 
adjustable  handserews  (see  Fig.  15). 


C.  Setting  out. 

It  is  often  necessary  for  accurate  workmanship  to  draw 
or  mark  the  outlines  of  the  pattern  object  on  the  wood,  at 
various  stages  of  the  work.  This  is  done  by  tracing  round 
the  outline  of  the  model,  by  copying  a  drawing,  or  by  means 
of  given  measurements. 

The  following  tools  are  necessary : — 

I.  The  metre-measure 

for  measuring  off  and 
subdividing  measure- 
ments. A  rule  of  hard 
wood,  one  metre  or  half 
a  metre  long,  divided 
into  centimetres  and 
Fig.  18.  Folding  Metre-measure,  i.  millemetres,  is  the  best 

for  the  purpose.     A  thin 

folding  rule  of  strong  wood  or  ebonite  may  be  used  for  less 
exact  measurements,  and  is  convenient  to  carry  about,  but  is 


TOOLS. 


71 


not  altogether  trustworthy,  on  account  of  the  looseness  of  its 
construction,  and  the  gaps  at  the  joints.* 

II.  In  drawing1  straight  lines  use  is  made  of 
an  ordinary  ruler  and  a  lead  pencil,  but  when 
great    accuracy   is  required   a  marking"    point 
should  be  used.     This  consists  of  a  piece  of  steel, 
tapering  to  a  sharp  point,  about  4  inches  long  and 
\  inch  thick,  inserted  in  a  handle  (Fig.  19). 

III.  In  drawing-  lines  parallel  to  the  edges  of 
a  piece  of  wood,  the  marking  g'auge  is  used. 

Many  different  kinds  are  made,  but  those  gener- 
ally used  agree  in  the  main  details.     They  consist 
of  a  piece  of  wood,  the  stock,  which  has  at  least 
two  parallel   plane  surfaces.     A  spindle,   either 
circular  or  square  in  cross-section,  passes  through 
a  mortise  in  the  stock.     At  one  end  of  the  spindle      Fi    ig 
is  a   sharp   lancet-shaped  steel  marker.      Some  Marking-point 
Swedish    marking    gauges    have    two  spindles.          Vs- 
That  side  of  the  stock  which  is  placed  against  the  edge  to 
which  the  lines  drawn  are  to  be  parallel,  may  vary  in  length, 
but  when  lines  are  drawn  parallel  to  a  straight  edge  (the 
most  usual  case),  the  longer  the  stock  is  the  better,  because 
this  facilitates  the   accurate   management  of  the  tool,  and 
enables  even  an  inexperienced  hand  to  gauge. 

(1.)  Marking  gaug>e 
with  rectangular  long 
stock  and  cylindrical 
spindle  (Fig.  20).  The 
stock  is  sawn  into  at  one 
end  as  far  as  the  mortise, 


Fig.  20. 


Marking  gauge, 
patent.    */*• 


Lundmark's 


and  to  secure  the  spindle  after  insertion  this  end  is  furnished 
with  a  screw,  by  means  of  which  the  spindle  is  held  fast  in 

*  Where  the  English  system  of  measurement  is  followed,  a  two  foot  rule  is  used, 
divided  into  eighths  of  an  inch  on  one  side,  and  into  sixteenths  on  the  other. 
The  use  of  the  metre-measure  is,  however,  strongly  recommended.  (See  foot- 
note, page  13).— TBS. 


72 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


the  manner  indicated  in  Fig.  20.  If  a  thumbscrew  and  nut 
are  substituted  for  this  screw,  the  necessary  pressure  can  be 
more  easily  and  surely  produced.  (See  Plate  X). 

(2.)  Marking1  gauge  (Fig.  21)  with  rectangular  long  stock 
and  rectangular  spindle.  The  spindle  is  held  in  place  by 
wedges.  This  is  a  simple  and  inexpensive  marking  gauge, 
invented  by  Herr  Alfred  Johansson,  head-teacher  at  Na'as. 
It  is  recommended  as  a  useful  and  practical  tool  for  school 
purposes.  (See  Plate  X.) 

The  long  stocks  of  both 
these  marking  gauges 
give  them  the  advantage 
already  indicated  over 
those  hitherto  in  use,  i.e., 
Fig.  21.  Marking-gauge.  */4-  they  enable  inexperi- 

enced workers  to  gauge  without  difficulty. 

The  English  mark- 
ing gauge  (Fig.  22) 
differs  from  the 
Swedish  one  in 
having  a  thumb- 
Fig.  22.  English  Marking-gauge.  screw  a  on  one  side 

a.  Thumbscrew.  Of    the    Stock,     which 

works  against  the  spindle  and  holds  it  in  position. 

The  marker  must  be  kept  well  filed  and  pointed  to  secure 
fine  distinct  lines,  parallel  throughout  with  the  edge.  The 
side  farthest  from  the  stock  should  be  straight,  and  as  nearly 
as  possible  parallel  with  the  side  of  the  stock.  The  inner 
side  of  the  marker,  on  the  contrary,  should  be  slightly  convex. 
The  marker  is  thus  calculated  to  cut  inwards  away  from  the 
edge,  and  does  not  "  run  off  the  lines  "  as  a  bad  marker  does, 
when  it  meets  with  a  hard  layer  of  autumn  wood  in  cutting 
in  the  direction  of  the  grain.  With  a  good  marker  the  gauge 
should  act  easily  and  well  without  exertion  of  any  kind  on 
the  part  of  the  worker. 


TOOLS. 


73 


(3)  The  cutting1  gauge  has  a  parallelepiped  shaped  spindle 
secured  by  a  wedge  (Fig.  23).  Instead  of  a  pin-shaped 
marker  it  is  provided 
with  a  thin  steel  cutter, 
adjusted  by  means  of  a 
pin.  Cuttings  more  or 
less  deep  may  thus  be 
made  on  the  surface  of 
the  work.  This  tool  is  Fig.  23.  Cutting  Gauge.  J. 

chiefly  used  for  gauging  across  the  grain,  and  in  setting  out 
for  grooving  and  dove-tailing. 

In  this,  as  in  all  marking  gauges,  it  is  important  that  the 
marker  should  be  inserted  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  side, 
and  consequently  the  point,  is  slightly  inclined  outwards  from 
the  side  of  the  stock. 


IV.    Compasses. 

1.  The  compass  generally  used  in  slojd  is 
a  simple  one  made  of  steel  with  a  hinge.  As 
it  is  often  necessary  to  maintain  the  distance 
between  the  arms  unaltered,  this  compass  is 
provided  with  a  bow,  which  is  attached  to 
one  arm,  and  which  can  be  secured  to  the 
other  by  a  screw.  A  compass  of  this  kind  is 
called  a  bow-compass  (Fig.  24). 

When  segments  of  large  circles  have  to  be 
described,  beam-compasses  are  used.  In 
place  of  the  arms  of  the  ordinary  compass, 
these  are  furnished  with  trammels,  aa,  united 
by  a  cross-piece  or  beam,  6,  and  pointed  at 


Fig.  24. 
Compasses. 


one  end,  where  there  is  a  steel  pin.  One  of  the  trammels  is 
fixed  to  the  cross-piece ;  the  other  is  movable,  and  is  adjusted 
by  means  of  a  pin. 


74 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLO.TD. 


Fig.  25.    Trammel  Heads,  or  Beam  Compasses, 
aa.  Trammels,  66,  Beam. 


Fig.  26.    Caliper  Compasses. 


2.  The  Caliper  Compass 

is  used  to  measure  the 
thickness  of  round  or  oval 
objects.  This  compass  has 
very  strong  curved  arms 
with  points  which  taper 
obliquely.  The  ordinary 
caliper  compass  may  be 
used  to  measure  the  dia- 
meter of  a  hole,  by  turn- 
ing the  arms  round  the 
hinge  until  the  points  are 


turned  away  from  one  another  (Fig.  26). 


V.  Squares  and  Bevels, 


Squares  are  used  for  testing  right  angles,  bevels  for  testing 
angles  of  various  sizes. 


TOOLS. 


75 


The  Square  consists  of  a  short 
thick  piece  called  the  stock,  with  a 
longer,  thinner  piece  at  one  end,  and 
at  right  angles  to  it,  called  the  blade. 
The  stock  projects  beyond  the  sides 
of  the  blade,  and  the  tool  can  be 
easily  applied  to  the  straight  edge  of 
a  piece  of  wood,  that  lines  may  be 
drawn  on  the  surface  at  right  angles 
to  this  straight  edge.  All  the  angles 
of  the  square,  exterior  as  well  as 
interior,  must  be  perfect  right  angles. 
This  is  not  only  essential  for  the 
operation  just  described,  but  also  Fig.  27.  Wooden  Square.  *. 
because  the  square  is  used  for  testing  solid  angles,  e.g.,  the 
edge  of  a  plank,  a  corner,  etc. 

Every  good  collection  of  tools  should 
include  several  squares  of  different  sizes, 
e.g.,  with  blades  6,  8,  12,  and  18  inches 
long. 

The  square  should  be  made  of  hard 
well-seasoned  wood,  warranted  not  to 
warp.  To  give  greater  durability  the 
blade  is  often  made  of  steel,  and  the  wood 
of  the  stock  faced  with  brass  on  the  inner 
side  (Fig.  28).  Still  stronger  and  more 
trustworthy  squares  are  made  with  steel 
blades  and  cast-iron  stocks.  Squares  of  Fig.  28. 
this  kind  are  particularly  useful  as  testing 
squares,  and  one  ought  to  be  included  in  every  good  collection 
of  tools. 

To  test  a  square.  The  blade  is  laid  on  the  plane  surface 
of  a  block  of  prepared  wood,  with  the  stock  against  a 
perfectly  straight  edge.  Lines,  drawn  against  each  side  of 
the  blade,  are  then  made  on  the  wood.  The  square  is  next 


Wooden 
squares. 


Square  with 
steel  blade-    «• 


76 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


To  test  a 
plane  «ur- 
ja.ce. 


mitre-bevel. 


reversed,  the  stock  is  placed  as  before,  and  the  edges  of  the 
blade  are  placed  close  to  the  lines  previously  made.  Lines 
are  then  drawn  once  more  along  the  edges  of  the  blade.  If 
these  lines  coincide,  or  are  perfectly 
parallel  with  those  made  first,  the  square 
is  correct. 

2.  The  set-bevel  (Fig.  29)  consists, 
like  the  preceding,  of  a  stock  and  a  blade, 
but  the  latter,  which  generally  extends 
beyond  the  end  of  the  stock,  is  attached 
in  such  a  way  that  it  forms  on  one  side 
an  angle  of  45°,  and  on  the  other  an  angle 
of  135°,  or  the  complementary  angle  of  a 
straight  angle.  It  is  used  when  a  rec- 
tangular corner  is  made  by  joining 
Fig.  29.  Set-bevel  or  together  pieces  cut  at  an  angle  of  45°. 
Such  pieces  are  said  to  be  mitred. 

In  the  wooden  bevel  the 

blade  rotates  on  a  screw  in 
the  stock.  To  secure  the 
blade  in  any  given  position 
the  screw  is  furnished  with 
a  nut,  by  means  of  which  it 
may  be  screwed  fast.  (Fig. 
Fig.  30.  The  Wooden  Bevel.  \.  3Q.) 

VI.  Winding  laths  or  straight  edges.  To  test  the  ac- 
curacy of  plane  surfaces,  a  long,  perfectly  straight  ruler  or 
straight  edge  is  used.  When  this  is  placed  on  the  surface 
in  various  directions,  there  must  be  complete  contact  be- 
tween it  and  the  surface.  A  still  more  delicate  method  of 
proof  is  furnished  by  the  double  straight  edge,  or  two 
straight  edges  exactly  the  same  (Fig.  31).  In  applying  the 
test  the  straight  edges  are  placed  one  at  each  end  of  the 
piece  of  wood,  and  parallel  to  one  another.  On  careful 


TOOLS.  77 


Fig.  31.    Winding  laths  or  straight  edges.    £. 

inspection,  if  the  surface  is  level  the  upper  edges  of  the 
rulers  will  be  found  to  be  in  the  same  plane.  The  straight 
edges,  when  not  in  use,  are  held  together  by  a  couple  of  pegs. 

The  edge  of  the  trying-plane  is  often  used  instead  of  the 
straight  edge,  and  two  trying-planes  instead  of  the  double 
straight  edge.  See  further  under  "face  planing,"  p.  132. 

D.   Tools  used  for  cutting  up  wood  and 
making  the  articles. 

I.    Saws. 

The  saw  is  an  indispensable  tool,  and  in  the  case  of  most 
articles  it  is  the  first  used.  The  blade  is  made  of  thin  steel 
of  various  breadths,  on  one  edge  of  which  a  series  of  sharp 
points  form  the  teeth.  The  steel  must  be  soft  enough  to  be 
acted  on  by  the  file,  and  to  admit  of  the  teeth  being  slightly 
turned  aside  without  breaking  off. 

The  saw  acts  by  tearing  or  cutting  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
as  the  teeth  of  the  blade  pass  over  them.  The  teeth  are, 
therefore,  the  characteristic  part  of  the  saw,  and  its  efficiency 
depends  on  their  form,  size,  and  quality. 

The  shape  and  size  of  the  teeth  vary  considerably  in 
different  kinds  of  saws.  The  form  generally  used  in  wood 
slqjd  is  shown  in  Fig.  32.  The  form  of  the  teeth  is  that  of 


78 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Form  and 
position  of 
the  teeth,  of 
a  saw. 


Lfnith  oj 
the  teeth. 


Fig.  32. 


a  scalene  triangle,  the  base 
of  which  is  formed  by  the 
blade.  The  shortest  side 
froms  an  angle  of  80°-90° 
with  the  base.  In  the  frame 
saw  (Fig.  37,  B),  the  angle 


Teeth  of  a  bow  saw  for 
ripping-.     }• 
is  90° ;  in  the  bow-saw,  the  dove-tail  saw,  etc.,  it  is  80°-S5°. 

The  teeth  of  any  given  saw  must  always  be  alike  in  size 
and  shape,  and  must  always  be  set  at  the  same  angle.  The 
shorter  side  of  the  teeth,  being  nearly  at  right  angles  with 
the  blade,  is  the  cutting  side,  and  in  working  the  saw  this  is 
the  side  which  should  enter  the  wood.  When  the  saw  is 
drawn  back,  the  more  sloping  side  of  the  teeth  has  very  little 
effect  upon  the  fibres,  and  the  saw  "goes  empty." 

The  teeth  of  the  bow-saw 
for  cross  cutting  form  an  isos- 
celes triangle  of  50°  between 
the   teeth.       A    saw    of   this 
Fig.  33.    Teeth  of  a  bow-saw  for     description  cuts  equally  well 
cross-cutting,  or  wood-saw,    -j-       backwards  or  forwards 

The  space  between  the  teeth  must  be  great  enough  to  leave 
room  for  the  sawdust  until  the  saw  has  carried  the  latter 
beyond  the  wood.  Now,  as  the  sawdust  occupies  more 
space  than  the  wood  from  which  it  is  produced,  the  teeth 
of  the  saw  must  be  considerably  longer  than  the  depth  of  the 
cut  made  each  time  the  saw  passes  through  the  wood,  and 
the  point  only  of  the  teeth  must  be  allowed  to  cut  the  wood, 
to  prevent  hindrance  to  their  action  by  an  accumulation  of 
sawdust.  If  the  sawdust  prevents  the  free  passage  of  the 
saw,  or  if  it  clings  about  the  teeth,  it  is  either  because  the 
teeth  are  too  small,  or  because  too  much  pressure  is  laid  on 
the  saw. 


Why  the  saw 
must  be  let. 


It  is  almost  impossible  to  avoid  considerable  friction 
between  the  blade  and  the  sides  of  the  cut,  and  this  friction 
is  increased  by  the  sawdust  which  accumulates  at  the  sides 


TOOLS. 


79 


of  the  blade.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  give  the  blade  a 
certain  amount  of  "play  ;"  in  other  words,  the  breadth  of  the 
cut  must  be  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  blade.  This  is 
effected  by  bending  the  teeth  alternately  a  little  to  the  one 
side  and  to  the  other,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  by  setting  the  saw. 

Setting  is  performed  by  means  of  the  Saw-set,  a  steel 
blade  TV  inch 
thick,  the  edges 
of  which  are 
indented  by 
notches  of  var-  Fig.  34.  Saw-set.  £. 

ions  breadths.  Some  English  Saw-sets  are  furnished  with 
an  adjustable  slide  rest.  In  setting  a  saw  the  blade  is 
fastened  into  Saw  Sharpening1  Clamps  (Fig.  35)  and  these 
are  screwed  to  the  bench.  One  tooth  after  another  is  grasped 
by  the  notch  of  the  Saw-set  best  adapted  to  the  thickness  of 
the  tooth,  and  the  blade  of  the  Saw-set  being  held  in  such 
a  way  as  to  conceal  the  point  of  the  tooth,  the  latter  is  then 
turned  sharply  aside.  It  must  not,  as  is 
sometimes  done,  be  twisted  at  the  same  time 
in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  blade, 
as  this  may  cause  it  to  break  off.  Great 
accuracy  is  required  in  the  operation,  and 
the  setting  should  never  be  so  extreme  that 
the  width  of  the  cut  is  more  than  double  the 
thickness  of  the  teeth.  If  this  width  is 
exceeded  the  saw  will  not  act  easily. 

Considerable  practice  and  skill  are  requir-  Flg>  35>  Saw  sharp" 
,    ,  m,  .    ,        „   ,  ,  ,  .    ening  clamps.    One 

ed  to  set  a  saw.  The  points  of  the  teeth  half  loosely  fastened 
should  form  a  line  exactly  parallel  to  the  to  the  other  by  means 
length  of  the  blade,  but  it  often  happens  that  of  wood  screws.  ^. 
some  teeth  project  beyond  this  line  and  others  fall  within  it. 
This  fault  may  be  remedied  to  some  extent  by  drawing  the 
blade  between  a  couple  of  gouges,  fixed  points  downwards  in 
a  piece  of  wood,  with  the  convex  sides  facing  one  another. 


set  saws. 


80  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

The  blade  of  the  saw  is  placed  between  them,  teeth  upwards, 
and  the  points  turned  from  the  operator,  or  in  the  direction 
from  d  to  c  (Fig.  32),  the  handles  are  grasped  with  one  hand 
to  bring  the  gouges  close  together,  and  the  blade  of  the  saw 
is  drawn  forwards  between  them. 

setting  In  consequence  of  the  difficulty  of  setting  a  saw  evenly 

t°>w-  and  at  a  good  angle,  many  different  kinds  of  saw-sets  and 
setting-tongs  have  been  devised.  The  latter  are  intended 
to  be  adjustable  for  any  desired  inclination  of  the  teeth. 
Some  of  these  tools,  however,  are  not  practically  useful,  and 
those  which  are  fully  adapted  for  use  are  generally  too  expen- 
sive for  ordinary  purposes. 

As  indicated  above,  setting  must  not  go  beyond  a  fixed 
limit.  Provided  that  the  saw  has  free  passage  through  the 
wood,  the  finer  the  cut  it  makes  the  better ;  and  much  less 
inclination  of  the  teeth  is  necessary,  in  the  case  of  dry  timber, 
than  in  unseasoned  or  loose-fibred  wood. 

saw  blades  Less  setting  is  also  necessary  in  the  case  of  saw-blades 
which  increase  in  thickness  towards  the  teeth.  These  are 
made  in  the  best  manufactories,  and  are  always  preferable 
to  blades  of  equal  thickness  throughout.  So-called  compass 
saws  often  have  blades  of  this  kind,  and  require  no  setting. 

sharpening  Quite  as  important  as  the  setting  of  the  saw  is  its  sharpen- 
ing, and  it  is  often  necessary  to  perform  both  operations  at 
the  same  time. 

To  sharpen  a  saw,  it  is  secured  in  the  saw-sharpening 
clamps;  and  the  ordinary  kinds  of  saw  used  in  wood  slojd 
are  sharpened  by  means  of  a  triangular  file  (Fig.  36). 


Fig.  36.     Triangular  or  Three-square  File.    £/' 

Care  must  be  taken  that  •  the  two  sides  of  the  file  which 

*  The  file  represented  in  the  illustration  is  a  single-cut  file ;  but  a  double- 
cut  iile  should  be  used. — Tus. 


TOOLS.  81 

are  to  be  used  form  the  angle  necessary  to  produce  the  in- 
clination in  the  edges  of  the  teeth  indicated  above.  This 
being  secured,  the  file  is  drawn  across  the  blade  at  right 
angles  to  it.  Every  indentation  must  be  filed  equally  deep, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  point  of  each  tooth  must  stand  equally 
high.  The  row  of  teeth  is  next  tested  with  the  straight  edge, 
and  if  any  of  the  teeth  stand  higher  than  the  others,  they 
must  be  topped  or  filed  down  with  a  fine  broad  file,  and  then 
sharpened  once  more. 

Sharpening  is  begun  at  the  end  of  the  blade,  towards 
which  the  points  of  the  teeth  are  turned,  or  from  c  to  d 
(Fig.  32).  The  degree  thus  produced  on  the  points  is  always 
in  the  direction  to  which  the  teeth  are  turned,  not  away  from 
it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  saw  would  be  rather  blunt.  Each 
tooth  must  be  carefully  filed,  that  its  edges  may  be  quite 
sharp,  and  the  cutting  side  quite  straight. 

Should  the  saw,  after  sharpening,  be  insufficiently  set,  it 
must  be  set  again,  after  which  the  file  must  be  once  more 
passed  over  the  teeth  to  remove  any  irregularities.  Generally 
speaking,  setting  precedes  sharpening. 

Sharpening  is  sometimes  performed  by  passing  the  file 
obliquely  over  the  edge  of  the  blade,  instead  of  at  right  angles 
to  it.  The  edges  of  each  tooth  are  thus  sharpened  obliquely 
from  within  outwards  (see  Fig.  33).  The  file  is  first  passed 
obliquely  through  every  alternative  tooth-space.  The  saw  is  Oblivuelv 

0  ,  .  sharpened 

then  reversed,  so  that  its  ends  change  places,  and  the  remaining  teeth. 
spaces  are  operated  on  in  the  same  way.     This  gives  a  knife- 
like  edge  to  both  sides  of  the  teeth,  and  makes  the  saw  cut 
particularly  swiftly  and  well.     The  common  wood-saws,  some 
tenon-saws,  and  hand-saws,  are  sharpened  in  this  way. 

It  need  hardly  be  added  that  setting  and  sharpening  are 
not  only  necessary  in  the  case  of  new  saws,  but  also  as  often 
as  the  teeth  become  worn  or  blunt. 

F 


82 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


The  saws  now  to  be  described  may-  be  classed  in  two  groups, 

i.e.,  saws  with  frames,  and  saws  without  frames. 

'  The  former  have  the  ends  of   the  blade  fastened  into  a 

frame,  the  tension  of  which  may  be  regulated  to  produce  the 

necessary  amount  of  resistance.      In  the  latter  kind  of  saw 

this  power  of  resistance  is 
given  by  means  of  the  greater 
breadth  and  thickness  of  the 
blade,  or  by  setting  the  back 
of  the  blade  in  a  binding  of 
metal.  This  binding  is  called 
the  saw-back. 

1.  Saws  with  Frames. 

1 .  The  Frame  Saw  (Fig.  37) 
is  the  largest  saw  used  in 
Slb'jd.  It  is  used  for  sawing 
up  planks  and  other  pieces 
of  wood  lengthwise  into  thin- 
ner pieces.  It  is  worked  by 
two  people,  and  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction.  The  blade 
has  from  3  to  4  teeth  per  inch, 
and  it  is  fastened  into  an 
oblong  wooden  frame,  mid- 
way between  the  side-rails. 

The  ends  of  the  blade  are 
enclosed  in  and  strengthened 
by  pieces  of  white-iron,  and 
are  fastened  by  the  attached 
pieces  running  through  each 
top-rail.  Tension  is  produced 

Fig.  37.  A.  Frame  Saw.  by  turning  the  winged  nut. 

«  blade,  b  side-rail,  c  top-rail,  d  winged  The  cutting  side  of  the  teeth 

nut  and  saw-blade  attachment.    ^. 

B.  Saw  blade  end  with  attachment.  ].  is  at  an  angle  of  90°. 


TOOLS. 


83 


2.  Bow  Saws  (Fig.  38)  are  of  different  sizes.  They  are 
much  used  in  wood-slojd,  not  only  in  the  earlier,  but  in  the 
later  stages  of  work.  Bow  saws  have  all  the  same  kind 
of  frame,  consisting  of  a  bar  called  the  stretcher,  longer  than 
the  blade  and  parallel  to  it,  at  each  end  of  which  there  is 
either  a  square  mortise  or  a  fork-like  notch  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  cross-pieces  or  side-arms.  The  latter,  though  care- 
fully fitted  in,  yet  have  a  certain  amount  of  play  at  the  ends 
of  the  stretcher,  in  order  that  they  may  be  drawn  closer 
to  each  other  on  either  side  of  the  stretcher  when  the  saw  is 
tightened.  At  one  end  of  each  side-arm  there  is  a  round 
hole,  through  which  passes  a  well- 
fitting  peg  with  a  handle.  This  peg 
is  sawn  through  the  middle  length- 
wise to  form  a  slot  for  the  saw  blade, 
which  often  extends  a  certain  length 
into  the  handle.  The  blade  of  the 
saw  is  narrower  at  the  ends  where  it 
enters  the  handle.  In  it  are  one  or 
two  holes,  through  which  the  fasten- 
ing pin  runs. 


Blades  fastened  in  this  way  often 
twist  when  tightened,  and  conse- 
quently cut  badly.  This  happens 
especially  when  the  axis  of  the  handle 
is  not  exactly  in  line  with  the  blade. 
This  defect  may  be  remedied  by  sub- 
stituting for  prolongations  of  the 
blade  itself,  the  white-iron  attach- 
ments (Fig.  39),  and  securing  them  in 
the  usual  way.  The  ends  of  the 
blade  are  fastened  between  the  plates 
of  the  attachment  merely  by  a  screw  a  Bi 
or  nail,  in  order  that  the  blade  may 
be  freely  adjusted. 


tt 


ff 


Fig.  38.    Broad-webbed 


rms.  c  blade. 

d  tightener,    e  string.    /  end 
of  blade  with  attachment. 
g  handle.    TV. 


84  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

The  side-arms  are  connected  at  the  other  end  by  several 
strands  of  strong  string,  which  are  twisted  together  by  a 
tightener,  in  order  to  give  the  required  tension  to  the  blade. 
When  the  string  is  put  on,  the  frame  is  fastened  between  the 
bench  pegs. 

The  stretcher  is  made  of  fir  or  pine;  the  side-arms  of  harder 
wood,  e.g.,  beech  or  oak.  The  different  parts  of  the  frame 
are  made  as  light  as  is  compatible  with  strength,  that  the 
saw  may  not  be  too  heavy  to  manage  with  one  hand. 

In  working,  the  saw  should  be 
firmly  grasped  by  the   side-arm 
just  above   the  handle.      In  the 
case  of  the  lighter  description  of 
saws,  the  handle,  as  well  as  the 
Fig.  39.    Saw-blade  end,        lower  part  of  the  side-arm,  should 
with  attachment.    4.          be  held  in  the  hand,  and  the  index 
finger  should  steady  the  blade. 

Generally  speaking,  the  blade  is  fixed  obliquely  to  the 
plane  of  the  frame;  partly  that  the  worker  may  saw  deeply 
without  hindrance  from  the  frame,  and  partly  that  he  may 
be  able  to  see  the  line  which  the  saw  is  to  follow. 

In  tightening  the  blade — which  is  best  done  by  turning 
both  handles  simultaneously — care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 
perfectly  straight.  Otherwise  a  straight  cut  can  hardly  be 
obtained. 

If  the  saw  is  out  of  use  for  any  length  of  time,  the  tightener 
should  always  be  slackened.  When  this  is  not  done  the  side- 
arms  may  become  twisted. 

Bow-saws  have  different  names,  depending  on  the  nature 
of  the  blade.  The  "  hook,"  i.e.,  angle  of  the  teeth  is  shown 
in  Fig.  32. 


TOOLS. 


85 


A.  The  Broad-webbed  Bow-saw  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.   Its 
blade  is  1  to  1^  inches  broad.     It  is  used 

in  numerous  cases,  e.g.,  in  sawing  off  long 
slips  of  wood,  where  a  straight  cut  is  all 
that  is  required.  It  has  4  to  5  teeth 
per  inch. 

B.  The  Turn-saw  (Fig.  40).    The  frame 
resembles  the  preceding,  but  the  blade  is 
very  narrow — about  £  inch,  or  very  little 
more — because  it  is  used  to  produce  cur- 
vilinear cuts.     The  toothing  is  very  fine — 
7    teeth    per    inch — and    the    setting    is 
sometimes  less  than  in  the  bow-saw,  that 
the  cut  may  be  accurate,  and  not  unneces- 
sarily broad.  Fig.  40.   Turn-saw. 

Turn-saws,  the  blades  of  which  are  over  half  an  inch  in 
breadth,  are  also  used.  These  are  called  broad-webbed  turn 
saws. 

2.    Saws  without  Frames. 

1.  The  Hand-saw  (Fig.  41)  has  a  very  broad  blade,  which 
is  narrower  at  one  end,  and  is  provided  at  the  broader  end 
with  a  convenient  handle.  The  large  blade  gives  it  sufficient 
strength,  and  this  is  often  increased  by  the  thickness  of  the 
blade,  which  may  exceed  that  of  the  frame-saw.  The  teeth 
are  set  to  cut  when  the  worker  pushes  the  saw  away  from 
him,  but  not  when  the  saw  is  drawn  back. 

This  saw,  distinguished  for  its  simplicity  and  convenience 
in  working,  is  in  general  use  in  England  and  North  America, 
but  is  not  much  used  in  Sweden. 


Fig.  41.     Hand-saw. 


gg  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

2  The  Dovetail  saw  (Fig.  42)  has  a  very  broad  blade  of 
equal  breadth  throughout,  with  a  handle.  To  give  sufficient 
strength  to  the  blade,  its  upper  edge  is  enclosed  m  an 

iron  back.  This 
thick  back 
limits  the  depth 
of  the  cut ;  con- 
sequently this 
saw  is  only 
^w. ^^^.^w^^v— vv~~  usedfor  shallow 


Fig.  42.    Dovetail-saw.  £.  incisions,  e.g., 

in  sawing  out  tenons,  dovetails,  etc.  This  saw  has  10  to  12 
teeth  per  inch.  The  shape  of  the  teeth  is  shown  in  Fig.  32, 
but  they  are  often  sharpened  with  advantage  in  the  manner 
shown  in  Fig.  33. 

[3.  The  Tenon-saw  is  practically  the  same  as  the  dovetail- 
saw,  but  it  is  rather  larger,  and  it  has  what  is  called  a  Box- 
handle,  somewhat  like  that  of  the  hand-saw. — TRS.] 

4.  The  Compass-saw  (Fig.  43).  The  blade  is  very  nar- 
row, and  terminates  in  a  point.  This  saw  is  used  when 

an  excision 
has  to  be 
made  in  the 
centre  of  a 
piec  e  of 
Fig.  43.  Compass-saw.  £.  work,  and 

cannot  be  begun  from  the  edge.  For  this  purpose  a  hole  must 
be  bored,  into  which  the  point  of  the  saw  can  be  inserted. 
To  give  the  blade  sufficient  strength  it  is  made  tolerably 
thick,  but  it  becomes  thinner  towards  the  back.  Compass- 
saws  are  of  various  sizes,  and  the  teeth  are  set  in  different 
ways.  The  number  of  teeth  varies  from  5  to  12  per  inch,  but 
their  form  is  in  most  cases  that  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

4.    The  Groove-saw  *  (Fig.  44)  has  a  tolerably  thick  blade 

*  Unknown  in  England,  but  recommended  as  useful.— TRS. 


TOOLS. 


87 


of  equal  breadth  throughout,  the  upper  edge  of  which  is 
entirely  enclosed  by  a  handle,  which  is  worked  by  both 
hands.  The  teeth  are  inclined  towards  the  worker,  and 
consequently  act  when  he  draws  the  saw  towards  him. 

It  sometimes 
happens,  especi- 
ally in  clamping 
and  grooving, 
that  an  incision 
must  be  made  in 
a  broad  flat  piece 
of  wood,  and  in 
many  cases  it 
must  not  be  Fig.  44.  Groove-saw.  \. 

carried  to  the  edge.  With  the  exception  of  the  tenon-saw, 
the  saws  hitherto  described  cannot  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  groove-saw  is  perfectly  adapted  for  it,  whereas  the  tenon- 
saw  is  not  quite  so  convenient,  because  the  setting  of  its  teeth 
is  not  suitable,  and  it  has  only  one  handle. 

II.  The  Axe. 

After  the  saw  the  axe  is  one  of  the  most  useful  tools  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  any  piece  of  work.  Axes  are  of  various 
kinds,  manufactured  for  different  purposes.  An  axe  of 
American  construction,  very  suitable  for  slojd  work,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  45.  The  edge  and  faces  are  slightly  curved,  and 
ground  on  both 
sides.  The  axe 
should  not  weigh 
more  than  about 
21bs.,  that  it 
may,  without 
trouble, be  wield- 
ed by  one  hand.  Fig.  45.  Axe.  Ohio  pattern,  f. 
The  handle,  of  hard  and  tough  wood,  such  as  oak  or  ash, 
should  be  curved  so  as  to  fall  well  into  the  hand,  and  the  axe 


88  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

shaft  must  be  firmly  secured  by  wedges  into  the  eye  of  the 
axe-head. 

In  working  with  the  axe  the  wood  is  supported  on  a  block, 
formed  of  an  evenly  sawn-off  piece  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 
The  best  tree  for  this  purpose  is  the  poplar. 

The  surface  of  the  block  must  always  be  kept  free  from 
sand,  which  would  destroy  the  edge  of  the  axe. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  beginners  to  hold  the 
piece  of  wood  in  such  a  way  that  the  hands  may  receive  no 
injury. 

Grinding       In  grinding  (see  under  this  head,  pp.  115-118)  the  axe 

the  axe.     anc[  an  other  edge-tools,  the  tool  must  be   held  steadily 

against  the  grindstone,  in  order  that  the  bevelled  edge  may 

be  quite  regular  and  of  the  same  breadth,  not  waving.     The 

two  bevelled  edges  should  form  an  angle  of  about  20°. 

III.  The  Knife. 

Atw'tabie        The  knife  is  the  slojder's  indispensable  and  most  important 

1  *rni/'-   tool,  and  it  is  the  first  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  beginner. 

It  is  therefore  important  to  select  for  slb'jd  suitable  knives 

of  the  best  quality.     The  blade  of  the  slojd  knife  should  be 

made  of  good  steel,  about  4  inches  long,  and  not  more  than 

f  inch  broad. 
The  edge 
should  be 

Fig.  46.     Slojd-knife— Naas  pattern.  £.  straight,    and 

the  two  faces  which  form  it  should  extend  over  the  entire 
breadth  of  the  blade.  The  back  of  the  knife  should  not  be 
more  than  T3jj-  inch  thick.  The  blade  ought  not  to  taper  to  a 
dagger-like  point,  but  should  terminate  as  is  shown  in  Fig. 
46.  The  best  angle  for  the  edge  is  15°.  The  other  end  of 
the  blade  terminates  in  a  tang  which  slots  into  the  handle. 


TOOLS. 


89 


A  commoner, 
though  by  no 
means  so  suit- 
able form  of 
knife  is  shown  Fig.  47.  Slojd  knife,  i. 

in  Fig.  47.     Directions  for  using  the  knife  are  given  in  Chap. 
V. 

IV.— The  Draw-Knife. 

This  consists  of  a  steel  blade  with  an  edge  formed  by 
grinding  on  one  side  only.  This  blade  is  furnished  at  both 
ends  with  handles,  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  in  the  same 
plane.  The  tool  is  worked  with  both  hands,  so  that  the 


Fig.  48.    Draw-knife.    J. 

whole  strength  of  the  slojder  can  be  thrown  into  its  use.  use  of  the 
The  draw-knife  is  chiefly  used  in  modelling  and  smoothing 
objects  with  curved   outlines.      It  is  also  used  in  making 
hoops  for  barrels,  &c.     Directions  for  its  use  are  given  in 
Chap.  V. 

V.— Chisels,  Gouges,  Carving-  Tools,  &e. 

These  terms  include  a  whole  group  of  tools  which  are  used 
in  wood-slojd  for  the  removal  of  small  pieces  of  wood,  in 
cases  where  the  knife,  the  saw,  or  the  plane  could  not  advan- 
tageously be  used. 

They  consist  of  a  flat  or  concave  blade  made  of  steel,  the  Pa>-t*  of  a 
cutting  end  of  which  is  cut  straight  across  and  sharpened  to chuel* &c' 


90 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


an  edge,  and  the  other  wrought  into  a  four-sided  tang,  which 
is  set  into  a  wooden  handle.  The  tool  in  working  is  driven 
into  the  wood  either  by  the  pressure  of  the  hand,  or  by 
blows  from  a  mallet.  In  order  that  the  handle  may  not  slip, 
or  twist  round  when  grasped,  it  is  generally  made  with  four 
sides,  greater  in  breadth  than  in  thickness,  and  with  the 
broader  sides  rounded.*  To  keep  the  handle  from  splitting 
under  violent  pressure,  the  base  of  the 
tang  is  furnished  with  a  shoulder,  on 
which  the  handle  rests. 

These  tools  vary  greatly  in  size  both  as 
regards  length  and  breadth.  The  latter 
dimension  determines  the  dimensions  of 
the  edge.  The  broadest  tools  are  gener- 
ally also  the  longest. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  execute  all  the 
different  kinds  of  exercises  which  occur, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  complete  set  of 
each  description  of  tools.  There  are 
usually  12  in  a  set,  all  of  different  breadths. 
Tools  of  this  kind  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  different  shapes  of  the  blade 
and  edge,  and  the  different  methods  of 
sharpening  as  follows  : — 


Fig.  49.  Firmer  Chisel^ 

A.  Blade  anil  handle. 

B.  Klade  showing  a   face 

and  edge. 

C.  liliidc.   c.   shoulder,   d. 

tang. 


1.    Chisels. 


These  tools  have  a  straight  edge  ground  on  one  side. 

1.  The  Firmer  Chisel  (Fig.  49).  The  breadth  of  the  blade, 
which  varies  from  1£  inches  to  £  inch,  is  generally  much 
greater  than  its  thickness.  The  face  of  the  edge  in  all  such 
tools  forms  with  the  front  side  an  ande  of  20°  to  25°. 

O 

The  firmer  chisel  is  used  in  paring  plane  or  convex  surfaces; 
in  mortising,  when  it  often  does  duty  instead  of  the  mortise 
*  English  handles  are  generally  turned  in  boxwood  or  beech.— TKS. 


TOOLS. 


91 


chisel  ;  in  curved  work  ;  in  facing  off;  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, in  all  cases  where  no  other  tool  can  be  made  use  of  with 
advantage. 

2.  The  Mortise-chisel  (Fig.  50).  .  The  thickness  of  the 
blade  generally  exceeds  its  breadth,  which  varies  from  %  inch 
to  1  inch.  The  front  face  of  the  blade  is  always  a  little 
broader  than  the  back. 

The  mortise-chisel  is  used  for  mortising  ;  and,  whenever 
possible,  a  blade  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  mortise  to  be 
made  should  be  selected.  The  great  thickness  of  the  tool 
enables  its  sides  to  act  with 
steady  force  upon  the  sides 
of  the  mortise,  and  makes 
accurate  execution  of  the 
operation  much  easier.  It 
is  driven  into  the  wood  by 
blows  from  a  mallet.  The 
angle  of  the  edge  is  the 
same  as  in  the  firmer  chisel. 

2.  Gouges. 

These  tools  have  a 
curved  edge. 

The  blade  of  the  gouge  is 
concave.  The  face  of  the 
edge  may  either  be  (a) 
ground  from  within  out- 
wards, in  which  case  the 
edge  will  lie  upon  the  inner 
or  concave  side,  or  (6)  in 
the  reverse  way,  when  the 
edge  will  lie  upon  the  outer  Fig  50.  Mortise-chisel, 

n/PnnvPv   sidfl  B-  shows  breadth  and 

01  Convex   Side.  &ngle  of  theedge>  _ 

Gouges   ground    in  the 
first  mentioned  manner  are  used  in  the  formation  of  grooves 
or  bowl-shaped  depressions.     Those  ground  in  the  other  way 


Fig.  51.  Gouge  i. 
A-  with  ed&e  on 

„   thfjnnf  side' 
B.  with  edge  on 


92  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

are  used  chiefly  in  perpendicular  paring  to  produce  concave 
and  cylindrical  surfaces. 

The  breadth  of  the  gouge  varies  from-£  inch  to  1^  inches, 
and  the  curve  of  the  edge  may  include  from  one-tenth  to  one- 
half  of  a  circle,  or  36°  to  180°.  All  the  gouges  in  one  set 
should  have  the  same  curve  in  the  edge.  The  gouge  is  driven 
into  the  wood  by  the  hand,  or  in  the  case  of  gouges  of  large 
size,  by  the  mallet. 

3.   The  Spoon  Gouge  and  the  Spoon  Iron. 

Ordinary  gouges  are  often  used  in  forming  the  bowls  of 
spoons  and  similar  articles,  but  the  tools  specially  adapted, 
and  best  for  the  purpose,  are  the  spoon  gouge  and  spoon  iron. 
The  larger  illustration  (Fig.  52)  shows  the  spoon  gouge.  In 
construction,  and  in  the  way  it  is  used,  it  somewhat  resembles 
A  (Fig.  51);  but  it  differs  from  it  in  having  the  blade  curved 
lengthwise,  to  facilitate  the  work  of  hollowing  out. 

The  spoon  iron  is 
different   in    form. 
It  is  shown  in  the 
smaller  illustration 
(Fig.  52),  and   re- 
sembles  a   knife 
Fig.  52.   Spoon  Gouge  and  Spoon  Iron.    \.         with     a     lancet- 
shaped  blade,  with  two  edges,  curved  like  a  bow,  and  taper- 
ing to  a  point  at  the  end.     It  is  worked  with  both  hands,  and 
cuts  to  either  side. 

4.  Carving  Tools. 

A  number  of  tools,  more  or  less  like  the  preceding,  are  used 
in  wood-carving.  Some  of  these  carving  tools  are  flat,  with 
rectangular  edges;  others  are  oblique  to  the  direction  of  their 
length,  with  a  bevelled  edge  on  both  sides ;  others  are  concave, 
with  a  circular  edge,  or  have  two  edges  meeting  in  a  point. 
They  are  straight  in  some  cases ;  in  others,  curved. 

As  only  a  few  of  these  tools  are  used  in  slojd  carpentry,  to 


TOOLS. 


93 


any  extent  worth  mentioning,  no  description  of  them  is  given; 
but  those  in  most  common  use,  with  their  names,  are  shown 
in  Fig.  53.  The  full  size  of  the  edge  is  given  in  the  outline 
beside  the  representation  of  each  tool. 


Fig.  53.    Carving  Tools. 


Firmer. 
Corner  firmer. 

Straight  gouge. 
Straight  gouge. 

Curved  gouge. 
Front  bent  gouge. 

Straight  parting  tool. 
Bent  parting  tool. 

Bent  chisel. 
Parting  gouge. 


VI.    Planes. 

The  edge  tools  hitherto  described  consist  of  a  single  steel 
blade,  with  a  cutting  edge  of  various  descriptions,  and  a 
handle  for  one  or  both  hands.  The  inclination  of  the  edge 
to  the  surface  of  the  wood  may  thus  be  altered  at  will,  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  require.  Narrow  surfaces,  or  sur- 
faces of  generally  circumscribed  area,  may  thus  be  levelled 
and  smoothed  to  a  certain  extent  (though  not  perfectly)  by 
the  knife,  the  axe,  the  chisel,  etc. ;  but  when  long  and  broad 
surfaces  have  to  be  made  absolutely  smooth,  we  require  an 


94  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

edge-tool  which,  by  attacking  in  the  first  place  all  the  eleva- 
tions, and  by  always  cutting  equally  deep  on  a  plane  surface 
(i.e.,  by  always  removing  shavings  of  the  same  thickness), 
finally  reduces  the  surface  to  one  uniform  level. 

The  plane  is  the  tool  which  fulfils  these  requirements. 
In  the  plane,  the  steel  blade  called  the  plane-iron  is  wedged 
tightly  into  a  parallelopiped-shaped  wooden  block,  called  the 
plane  stock,  which  is  formed  in  various  ways  for  various 
purposes.  The  edge  of  the  blade  extends  slightly  beyond  the 
under  side  of  the  block. 

The  plane  is  used  not  only  in  the  dressing  of  plane  surfaces, 
but  also  in  the  preparation  of  all  surfaces  on  which  straight 
lines  can  be  drawn  in  at  least  one  direction ;  e.g.,  in  smoothing 
the  surface  of  cylindrical  and  conical  objects,  etc.  Con- 
sequently, many  different  kinds  of  planes  are  required. 

The  plant-  All  planes,  however,  consist  of  two  principal  parts :  the 
sole  or  stock,  and  the  iron.  The  stock  is  formed  of  hard, 
tough,  straight-fibred  wood  in  the  form  of  a  parallelepiped, 
the  under  side  of  which,  the  sole,  glides  over  the  work  when 
the  tool  is  used.  The  best  wood  is  elm,  beech,  pear,  or  box- 
wood, which  has  been  well  seasoned  to  prevent  warping. 
The  plane  is  worked  with  both  hands.  The  front  part  of 
Swedish  planes  is  often  provided  with  a  rest  for  the  hand, 
called  the  horn.  The  larger  kind  of  planes  have  a  handle 
behind  the  iron. 

rhe  plane-  The  plane-iron  is  placed  obliquely  in  a  hole  in  the  stock, 
called  the  socket  (Figs.  54  and  56),  with  its  edge  extending  a 
very  little  beyond  the  sole,  and  it  is  secured  by  a  wooden 
wedge.  It  is  made  of  iron,  with  a  steel  front.  In  shape  it 
resembles  a  wedge,  the  thicker  end  of  which  is  sharpened. 
The  wedge-like  shape  gives  the  required  thickness  and 
strength  to  the  sharpened  end,  leaves  more  room  towards  the 
upper  end,  and  also  helps  to  keep  the  plane-iron  firmly  in  its 
place  when  the  edge  comes  against  hard  knots  in  the  wood 
and  the  pressure  tends  to  force  the  iron  upwards. 


trou. 


TOOLS.  95 

To  form  the  edge,  the  plane-iron  is  ground  on  the  posterior  Angie  Ofthe 
or  bevelled  edge.     This  forms  an  angle  of  from  20°  to  25°  e^eo/"'« 
with  the  front  face  of  the  plane-iron.     The  former  angle  is  and  its  po3i_ 
suitable  for  loose  fibred  timber ;  the  latter  for  hard  or  knotty  tion  in  the 

stock. 

wood.  The  edge  must  not  be  too  thin,  for  if  so,  the  iron  will 
fly,  i.e.,  become  jagged.  The  iron  is  generally  placed  in  the 
socket  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  with  the 
bevelled  edge  downwards. 

It  occasionally  happens,  e.g.,  in  small  American  planes  with 
iron  stocks,  that  the  bevelled  edge  of  the  plane-iron  is  turned 
upwards  at  an  angle  of  25°  to  the  plane  of  the  sole.  It  may 
also  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  in  planes  manufactured  for 
special  purposes,  e.g.,  planing  particularly  hard  kinds  of  wood, 
the  irons  are  placed  at  an  angle  of  50°,  55°,  60°,  or  even  90°. 

As  indicated  above,  the  plane  acts  by  removing  thicker  or 
thinner  shavings,  according  as  the  plane-iron  extends  more 
or  less  beyond  the  sole.  In  working  with  the  knife  it  is 
always  possible  to  alter  the  position  of  the  edge  in  order  to 
prevent  its  cutting  in  the  same  direction  as  the  fibres  run, 
which  would  tear  them,  and  render  the  surface  uneven.  But 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  guide  the  stationary  plane-iron 
in  this  way.  Hence  in  cross-grained  wood,  or  in  timber 
where  the  fibres  lie  parallel  with  the  surface,  the  plane  has  a 
tendency  to  split  or  tear  them,  and  the  resistance  offered  by 
the  torn  fibres  is  often  so  great  that  the  plane  cannot  be 
driven  forward.  The  fibres  also,  by  their  elasticity,  tend  to 
drag  the  iron  downwards.  To  prevent  the  fibres  tearing  in 
front  of  the  iron,  provision  must  be  made  (1)  for  breaking 
them  off  at  once,  and  (2)  for  bringing  at  the  same  time  pres- 
sure to  bear  on  them  from  above,  just  over  the  edge  of  the 
iron,  by  means  of  which  their  elasticity  may  be  diminished 
or  wholly  neutralised.  The^irs^  object  is  attained  by  placing 
a  cover  above  the  iron,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  break  off  the  The  cover. 
fibres  as  quickly  as  they  are  detached;  the  second,  by  re- 
ducing the  set  or  opening  in  front  of  the  iron  as  much  as  is 
compatible  with  the  free  passage  of  the  shavings  through  it. 


96 


HANDBOOK    OP   SLOJD. 


To  put  on 
t.'ii  cover. 


_b'ig.  54.     Trying  Plane.     £. 
A  stock,  B  handle,  C  socket,  D  D  cheeks,  E  wedge,   F  cover,  G  iron,  H.   boss. 

A  rectangular  opening  in  the  iron,  enlarged  and  rounded 
at  one  end,  admits  the  screw  of  the  cover,  and  permits  of  its 
adjustment.  The  lower  end  of  the 
cover  is  curved,  with  the  concave  side 
inwards,  and  it  terminates  in  a  sharp 
edge.  When  the  screw  is  tightened 
this  sharp  edge  must  lie  close  against 
the  surface  of  the  iron  (see  Fig.  55). 
If  the  slightest  space  is  left  the  shav- 
ings will  force  their  way  through. 
The  other  side  of  the  cover  must  be 
carefully  rounded  to  permit  the  shav- 
ings to  glide  freely  over  it.  The  edge 
of  the  cover  should  be  very  near  the 
edge  of  the  iron.  In  finishing  up  a 
surface,  and  plain  jointing,  the  dis- 
tance should  be  about  ~2  inch,  and  about  double  that  distance 
in  cases  where  coarser  shavings  may  be  removed.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  socket  and  the  edge  of  the  plane  in  front 
should  be  about  TV  inch  for  fine  planing,  and  not  more  than 
•£$  inch  for  coarser  work. 

Theu>edge        In  planes  like  the  smoothing-plane  and  the  trying-plane, 

™keL        where  the  iron  is  narrower  than  the  sole,  and  is  inserted  in 

the  socket  from  above,  the  front  side  of  the  socket  should  be 

at  right  angles  with  the  plane  of  the  sole,  and  of  the  same 


Fig.  55.     Plane  Iron. 

A  seen  from  the  front  \. 

B  seen  from  the  side  {, 

a  iron.  l>  cover. 


TOOLS. 


97 


breadth  as  the  iron.  The  inclination  of  the  side  of  the  socket 
on  which  the  iron  rests  has  been  already  indicated ;  the  other 
two  sides,  i.e.,  the  cheeks,  are  thicker  towards  the  iron,  in  order 
to  give  support  and  steadiness  to  the  wedge,  and  the  sides  of 
the  wedge  are  inclined  towards  one  another  at  an  angle  of 
about  8°.  If  this  angle  is  much  greater  the  wedge  fits 
loosely  ;  if  it  is  less  it  may  fit  so  tightly  that  it  cannot  with- 
out difficulty  be  loosened.  The  wedge,  which,  is  forked  at 
the  lower  end, 
must  fit  accur- 
ately into  the 
space  in  the 
socket  left  by  the 
iron,  otherwise 
shavings  may 
gather  round  its 
points  (see  Fig. 
56).  These  points 
require  frequent- 
ly to  be  trimmed, 
because  from  re- 
peated sharpen- 
ing the  wedge- 
shaped  plane- 
iron  gradually 
sinks  deeper  in 
the  socket,  caus- 


Fig.  56.    Portion  of  Plane.    Socket.    £. 

F  section  through  e  d  showing  plane  iron,  wedge  and 

piece  of  wood  inserted. 


ing  the  wedge  to  do  the  same. 

Should  the  sole  of   the  plane  become  warped,  or  uneven  planing  the 
through  wear,  it  must  be  carefully  planed.     It  follows  from  ^u  and  in- 

fc>  .         .      ,,  n     i       sertiny  a 

the  construction  of  the  socket  that  the  opening  in  tront  ot  tne  piece  of 
iron,  after  repeated  planing,  becomes  too  large.     It  is  usual wood- 
to  remedy  this  by  inserting  in  front  of  the  iron  a  piece  of 
very  hard  wood,  e.g.,  ebony,  beech,  or  boxwood  (see  Fig.  56). 
Brass  is  also  used  for  this  purpose.     New  planes  are  also 

G 


98  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

often  furnished  with  such  pieces,  in  order  that  the  portion  in 
front  of  the  plane-iron's  edge  may  longer  resist  the  wearing 
effect  of  the  shavings. 

Putting  in  the  Plane-Iron  or  Setting  the  Plane. 

The  cover  is  screwed  tightly  on  the  iron,  with  its  sharp 
edge  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  iron,  which 
is  then  laid  in  the  socket,  just  deep  enough  to  allow  its  edge 
to  lie  in  the  same  plane  as  the  surface  of  the  sole.  The 
wedge  is  then  put  in,  and  secured  by  a  couple  of  light  blows 
from  the  hammer.  The  plane  is  then  taken  in  the  left  hand, 
with  the  thumb  resting  on  the  wedge  in  the  socket.  The 
sole  is  turned  upwards,  and  the  iron  is  carefully  driven  in  a 
little  more,  so  that  its  edge  shows  just  as  much  beyond  the 
plane  of  the  sole  as  the  occasion  requires.  If  it  seems  crooked, 
i.e.,  if  one  corner  seems  lower  than  the  other,  this  must  be 
rectified  by  light  taps  on  its  free  edges.  When  its  position 
appears  to  be  right,  the  iron  is  secured  by  driving  the  wedge 
in  more  firmly.  If,  after  this,  the  iron  is  found  to  be  too  low, 
it  may  be  made  to  recede  by  a  blow  on  the  back  part  of  the 
stock,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  trying-plane,  by  a  blow  on  the 
boss,  a  piece  of  hard  wood  or  metal  inserted  in  front  of  the 
socket  (see  If,  Fig.  54).  [This  boss  is  not  always  found  in 
English  planes.  It  is  useful  in  slb'jd  as  indicating  the  place 
to  which  the  blow  should  be  directed,  and  thus  saving  the 
stock  of  the  plane  from  injury. — TRS.]  The  loosened  wedge 
is  then  fastened  once  more,  and  the  position  of  the  iron  is 
tested  by  the  thickness  of  the  shavings  it  removes,  and  raised 
or  lowered,  if  necessary,  according  to  the  above  directions. 
When  the  iron  is  removed,  the  plane  is  held  in  the  way 
indicated  above. 

1.   Planes  with  Flat  Soles  for  the  dressing  of  plane 
surfaces. 

1.  The  jack-plane  (Fig.  57).  To  give  certainty  and  ease  in 
working,  the  front  portion  of  the  stock  of  a  Swedish  jack- 
plane  is  furnished  with  a  horn  for  the  hand,  and  a  metal 


TOOLS. 


99 


support  of  American  invention  is  sometimes  placed  behind ' 
the  iron  to  prevent  the  other  hand  from  coming  in  contact 
with  its  sharp  edges.  The  iron  is  single,  i.e.,  it  has  no  cover, 
and  the  edge  is  curved,  not  square.  The  Swedish  jack-plane 
is  9£  inches  long.  [The  English  jack-plane  is  16  inches 
long. — TRS.] 

The  jack- 
plane  is  used 
on  rough  un- 
planed  sur- 
faces as  a  pre- 
paration for  a 
finer  plane, 
when  the  ob- 
ject in  view  is 
more  to  re- 


Lemjlh  of 
the  jack- 
plane. 


move     thick 

Shavings 


ra- 


Fig.  57.    Jack-plane.    J. 
A  horn,  B  support  for  hand,  C  single  iron. 

pidly  by  an  iron  which  cuts  deep,  than  to  produce  a  smooth 
surface.  As  the  iron  is  single,  and  the  opening  in  front  of  it 
tolerably  wide,  the  jack-plane  has  a  tendency  to  tear  up  the 
wood  ;  and  it  is  therefore  not  advisable  to  use  this  tool  very 
near  the  surface  which  is  ultimately  to  be  produced. 

2.  The  trying-plane  is  the  largest  and  most  indispensable 
of  all  the  planes  in  use.  That  it  may  be  wielded  steadily  it 
is  provided  with  a  handle  for  one  hand.  The  iron  is  double, 
i.e.,  provided  with  a  cover.  Its  various  parts  and  their  con- 
struction are  fully  described  in  connection  with  Fig.  54,  and 
the  method  of  using  it  is  described  in  Chap.  V. 

It  is  employed  in  shooting,  i.e.,  in  producing  level  surfaces  use  of  the 
of  all  kinds,  and  it  is  sometimes  used  in  preparatory  work 
instead  of  the  jack-plane,  in  which  case  the  iron  should  be 
set  rather  deeper  than  for  shooting.  When  the  trying-plane 
is  used  instead  of  the  jack-plane,  the  space  between  the  socket 
and  the  edge  of  the  iron  in  front  should  be  wider  than 
in  the  later  stages  of  planing. 


100 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Length  of 
the  tryinj 
plane. 


Grinding  jn  a]j  planes  used  for  shooting,  the  surface  of  the  sole  must 
iron.  lie  altogether  in  the  same  plane  ;  and  the  edge  of  the  plane- 
iron  must  be  ground  quite  straight,  and  at  right  angles  with 
the  middle  line  of  the  iron.  As,  however,  the  corners  of  a 
perfectly  straight-edge  are  apt  to  tear  up  the  fibres  by  the 
side  of  the  iron,  or  at  least  to  leave  a  mark  on  the  wood,  they 
should  be  very  slightly  rounded.  The  sole  is  sometimes 
rubbed  with  raw  linseed  oil,  that  it  may  glide  more  smoothly 
over  the  wood. 

The  trying-plane  should  always  be  worked  in  the  direction 
of  its  length,  not  obliquely  to  it,  as  is  often  improperly  done. 

The  trying-plane  should  be  about  20  inches  long.     [The 
English  trying-plane  is  22  inches  long. — TES.] 

3.  The  smoothing-plane   (Fig.  58)  resembles  the  jack- 
plane,  but  is  broader,  and  has  a  double  iron. 

The  smoothing- 
plane  is  used  after 
the  trying-plane  to 
produce  a  very 
smooth  polished  sur- 
face. As  the  shav- 
ings it  removes  must 
be  extremely  fine,  the 
edge  of  the  cover  is 
placed  very  close  to 

the  edge  of  the  iron,  or,  as  it  is  called,  is  "  set  fine  in  front." 
The  smoothing  plane  should  be  about  9|-  inches  long.    [The 

English  smoothing-plane 
is  7|  inches  long. — TES.] 
The  smoothing-plane  and 
planes  like  it  may  be  fur- 
nished with  a  support  for 

Iron  Smoothing-plane  (American    the  hand>  behind  the  iron, 
pattern].    £.  like  the  jack-plane. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  stocks  of  planes  are  sometimes 


Fig.  58.    Smoothing-plane. 


TOOLS. 


101 


made  of  iron.  Planes  of  this  kind  are  used  in  England,  and 
to  a  still  greater  extent  in  America.  The  plane-iron  is  ad- 
justed by  means  of  a  screw.  Small  iron  smoothing-planes 
are  very  useful  for  children,  whose  hands  are  not  large  enough 
to  hold  planes  of  the  ordinary  size.  A  plane  of  this  pattern 
is  shown  in  Fig.  59. 

4.  The  rebate-plane  (Fig. 
60).  When  the  adjacent  sur- 
faces of  a  rebate  have  to  be 
planed,  the  ordinary  smoothing- 
plane  does  not  answer  because 
the  iron  is  narrower  than  the 
sole.  In  the  rebate-plane  the 

edge  of  the  iron  is  as  broad  as        Fig-  60.    Rebate-plane,    i. 
the  sole,  sometimes  even  a  little  broader.     The  upper  part  of 
the  iron  is  much  narrower,  and  it  is  wedged  into  a  mortise 
in  the  stock.     The  iron  is  single,  and  the  shavings  escape 
through  an  opening  above  its  edge. 

2.  Planes  for  the  Dressing  of  Curved  Surfaces. 
1.  The  round. — This  plane  is  used  for  hollow  grooved 
surfaces.  It  resembles  the  smoothing-plane  and  the  jack- 
plane,  but  differs  from  them  in  the  more  or  less  convex  sole, — 
the  degree  of  convexity  depending  on  the  degree  of  concavity 
it  is  desired  to  pro- 
duce. The  iron 
may  be  single  or 
double,  and  the 
edffe  is  rounded 

O 

to  correspond  with 
the  sole.  An  ordi- 
nary jack-plane 


may  easily  be  con- 
verted into  a 
round,  by  round- 


Fig.  61.    Round. 

P  seen  from  behind. 


the  sole  and  the  edge  of  the  iron.    In  working  the  round 


102  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

it  must  always  be  driven  forward  in  a  line  with  its  length. 
In  consequence  of  the  shape  of  the  tool,  any  other  method 
would  destroy  the  surface  required. 

[2.  The  hollow,  another  plane  of  this  kind,  has  the  sole 
concave,  and  an  iron  to  correspond.  It  is  used  in  planing 
round  surfaces. — TRS.] 

3.  The  compass  plane. — In  this  plane  the  sole  is  curved 
lengthwise,  and  the  iron  is  an  ordinary  double  one  with  a 
straight  edge.  It  is  used  in  planing  hollow  curved  surfaces. 
Soles  of  different  degrees  of  curvature  are  required,  according 
to  the  radii  of  the  surface  to  be  planed,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  two  should  accurately  correspond.  The  curvature 

of  the  sole  must  not  be  less 
than  the  curvature  of  the 
surface  of  the  work,  but  it 
maybe  greater.  The  differ- 
ence, however,  if  any,  must 
be  slight,  because  the  two 
opposing  surfaces  must 
correspond  closely  enough 
to  permit  of  the  steady 
Fig.  62.  Compass  Plane,  i.  guidance  of  the  tool.  One 

compass-plane,   therefore,    will    not   suffice   for    surfaces   of 
greatly  varying  curvature. 

American  compass-planes  of  iron,  called  adjustable  planes, 
have  flexible  steel  soles,  which  can  be  adapted  to  surfaces  of 
different  degrees  of  curvature.  One  plane  of  this  kind  is 
therefore  enough. 

3.  The  Old  Woman's  Tooth-Plane,  and  Dove-tail  FiUetster. 
The  old  woman's  tooth-plane  is  quite  unlike  the  planss 
hitherto  described.  It  consists  of  a  block  of  wood  on  the  inner 
side  of  which  is  fastened  an  iron,  secured  by  a  thumb-screw. 
(Fig.  63).  The  construction  of  some  planes  of  this  kind  is 
much  simpler ;  they  consist  merely  of  a  parallelepiped  piece 


TOOLS. 


103 


of  wood,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  wedged  a  straight  or  curved 
iron.     In  this  case  the  blade  of  a  firmer  chisel  is  often  used. 


Fig.  63.     Old  Woman's  Tooth-Plane,  seen  from  above  and  from  the  side.     $. 

The  dove-tail  filletster  is  like  the  rebate  plane,  but  differs 
from  it  in  having  the  plane  of  the  sole  oblique  to  the  sides  of 
the   stock,  instead 
of  at  right  angles 
to  them,  and  also 
in  having  a  rebate 
either   in    a    piece 
with    the   sole,   or 
attached  to  it   for 
the     purpose     of     Fig.  64.    Dove-tail  Filletster,  seen  from  the  side 
guiding   the  plane  and  from  behind,    i. 

along  the  line  of  the  dove-tail  rebate  to  be  formed. 

In  the  simple  kind  of  filletster  shown  in  Fig.  64,  the  rebate 
is  fixed,  but  in  the  more  complicated  kind  (Fig.  65),  the 
rebate  is  adjustable  to  suit  deeper  or  shallower  work  ;  the 
latter  is  also  provided  with  a  "  cutter"  which  determines  the 
line  within  which  the  surface  is  to  be  planed.  This  line,  in 
other  cases,  must 
first  be  gauged 
with  a  cutting 
gauge;  otherwise 
the  plane  will 
tear  the  fibres  on 
that  side  and 
make  it  uneven.  Fig-  65.  Dove-tail  Filletster. 


104  HANDBOOK   OF   SLOJD. 

Both  these  planes  are  used  in  making  dove-tail  rebates ; 
the  old  woman's  tooth  in  smoothing  and  levelling  the  bottom 
of  the  groove  into  which  the  dove-tail  is  shot,  and  the 
filletster  in  working  the  dove-tail. 

4.    The  Plough. 

When  a  rectangular  groove  is  made  in  a  piece  of  wood  the 
plough  is  used  (see  Plate  X.)  The  breadth  of  the  iron  must 
not  exceed  the  breadth  of  the  groove  to  be  made,  and  the 
sole  consists  of  an  iron  splint  set  into  the  stock.  The  plough 
is  furnished  with  a  directing  gauge,  adjustable  by  bolts  and 
wedges  or  screws.  From  6  to  12  irons  of  different  breadths 
accompany  each  plane. 

5.    The  Iron  Spokeshave. 

The  spokeshave  may  be  included  in  the  same  class  as  the 
plane.  It  is  made  entirely  of  iron,  with  two  handles,  and  is 
worked  with  both  hands.  The  sole  is  very  short — shorter 
than  the  breadth  of  the  iron — and  this  renders  the  tool  very 
useful  in  forming  narrow  convex  or  concave  surfaces. 

The  iron  is  se- 
cured by  a  screw 
and  a  fixing  plate. 
The  latter  also 
does  duty  as  a 
Fig.  66.  Spokeshave.  £.  cover,  and  makes 

the  tool  more  serviceable  (see  Fig.  66). 

The  spokeshave  is  a  simple,  practical,  and  easily-managed 
tool.  It  is  made  in  several  sizes,  and  the  iron  may  have  a 
straight  edge,  or  one  which  curves  outwards.  The  former  is 
more  common. 

[The  spokeshave  described  above  is  an  American  pattern. 
English  spokeshaves  are  made  of  wood,  and  are  recommended. 
— TRS.] 


TOOLS. 


105 


VII.    Files. 

The  files  used  in  wood-slb'jd  are  the  same  as  those  used  in 
metal  work.  The  file  plays,  however,  a  much  less  important 
part  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  In  wood-slb'jd  it  is 
used  chiefly  to  smooth  curved  surfaces,  the  interior  of  holes 
and  depressions,  and  the  ends  of  pieces  of  wood,  in  all  cases 
where  edge-tools  cannot  be  used  advantageously. 

The  file  consists  of  a  piece  of  steel,  the  shape  of  which  may 
vary,  and  on  the  surface  of  which  sharp  ridges  have  been  cut 
with  a  chisel.  These  ridges  are  equidistant  the  one  from  the 
other,  and  oblique  to  the  length  of  the  file.  They  form  the 
file-grade  (Fig.  67) — the  essential  characteristic  of  the  tool.  The  & 

A  single-cut  file  is  cut  in  one 
direction  only  ;  in  a  double-cut  file 
the  cuts  cross  one  another.  Both 

cuts  incline  towards  the  point  of  Fig.  67.  File-grade,  f. 
the  tool,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  file  acts  chiefly  when 
driven  forward,  and  has  little  effect  when  drawn  back.  The 
files  used  in  wood-slb'jd  have  usually  a  tapering  point.  All 
files  terminate  at  the  other  end  in  a  tang  which  slots  into 
the  handle. 


Fig.  68.    Files.    £. 
a  flat  file,  b  half-round  file,  c  round  file. 

Files  are  called  triangular,  square,  flat,  round,  half-round, 
etc.,  according  to  the  form  of  the  blade  in  cross-section.    Flat 


106  HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 

round,  and  half-round  files  are  most  used  in  wood-slojd 
(Fig.  68).  The  triangular  file  is  used  for  sharpening  saws 
(Fig.  36). 

The  fineness  of  the  file  depends  on  the  number  of  cuts  per 
inch.  They  are  usually  classified  as  coarse,  medium,  fine, 
and  very  -fine. 

Medium  files,  about  12  inches  long,  are  the  most  useful  for 
working  in  wood,  but  coarse  files,  or  rasps,  may  be  used  in 
the  first  stages  of  work. 

Method  of  When  in  use,  the  file  is  grasped  by  the  handle  by  one  hand, 
and  the  wrist  or  fingers  of  the  other  are  laid  on  the  point  to 
produce  the  required  pressure.  The  file  is  passed  steadily 
and  slowly  backwards  and  forwards  over  the  work  if  the 
surface  desired  is  level,  and  with  a  circular  motion  if  it  is 
curved.  Pressure  is  exerted  only  when  the  file  is  driven 
forward ;  when  it  is  drawn  back  again  it  is  allowed  to  glide 
over  the  surface.  When  the  work  cannot  be  made  fast,  the 
file  must  be  worked  with  one  hand  ;  but,  whenever  possible, 
the  work  should  be  secured  to  the  bench,  that  both  hands 
may  be  free  to  direct  and  steady  the  file. 

cleaning  the  In  filing  resinous  or  unseasoned  wood,  the  cuts  of  the  file 
are  apt  to  become  clogged  with  sawdust.  The  file  may  be 
cleaned  with  a  stiff  steel  brush,  but  the  simplest  method  of 
cleaning  a  wood-file  is  to  wash  it  in  hot  water.  The  same 
file  should  never  be  used  for  wood  and  metal. 

VIII.    Methods  of  Finishing  Work. 
1.    The  Scraper. 

This  tool  consists  of  a  highly-tempered  piece  of  steel  (Fig. 
69).  The  edges  of  the  scraper  are 
generally  straight,  but  sometimes  the 
ends  are  rounded  or  hollowed  to  suit 
concave  or  convex  surfaces.  The  two 
longest  parallel  edges  are  ground  at 
Fig.  69.  Scraper.  *.  rjght  angles  to  the  sides. 


TOOLS.  107 

scraper  is  sharpened,  it  is  placed  at  the  edge  of  a  plank, 
and  a  very  hard  piece  of  steel  is  drawn  against  its  edge  as 
nearly  as  possible  on  the  plane  of  the  plank.  This,  when 
repeated  several  times  backwards  and  forwards,  levels  the 
sharp  edge  of  the  scraper,  which  is  raised  up  again  by  having 
the  steel  once,  steadily  but  not  too  heavily,  passed  along  it. 
During  this  the  steel  is  held  almost  perpendicular,  with  its. 
upper  end  inclined  very  slightly  towards  the  upper  side  of 
the  plank.  The  raised  edge  of  the  scraper  now  forms  a  fine 
edge,  which  takes  hold  of  the  wood  when  drawn  across  its 
surface,  and  removes  minute  shavings.  When  it  becomes 
blunt,  it  must  be  sharpened  once  more,  and  as  its  edge,  after 
repeated  sharpening,  becomes  uneven,  it  must  finally  be  re- 
ground.  A  worn  saw-file,  the  cut  of  which  has  been  carefully 
ground  off,  and  the  edges  slightly  rounded,  or  a  firmer  chisel,, 
may  be  used. 

The  scraper  should  be  held  easily  in  the  hand.  In  polish-  Method  of 
ing  a  plane  surface,  the  tool  should  be  taken  in  both  hands,  scraper. 
The  scraper  should  incline  towards  the  surface  of  the  work 
(see  Chap.  V.,  page  136),  and  should  be  worked  always  in  the 
direction  towards  which  it  leans,  and  with  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  but  somewhat  obliquely  to  the  direction  of  the  fibres. 
Towards  the  end,  pressure  should  be  diminished,  to  produce  a 
finer  polish.  Care  must  be  taken  lest  the  cutting  edge 
become  ragged  from  careless  "setting,"  and  scratch  the 
surface.  Should  this  be  so,  the  scraper  must  be  re-ground, 
and  then  sharpened. 

2.    Sand-Paper. 
Sand-paper  is  made  of  paper  with  a  coating  of    finely-  sand-paper 

-,   n.     ,       i  i        i  •      ••         rru  •  made  of  flint 

ground  flint,  glass,  or  quartz  glued  on  to  it.     I  he  grams  on  andofgiau. 
the  same  paper  are  always  of  the  same  size,  and,  according  to 
the  finer  or  coarser  quality,  the  paper  is  numbered  from  0  to 
rough  2. 

[Sand-paper  made  of  flint  is  generally  used  in  Sweden. 
In  England,  glass-paper  is  considered  the  best. — TBS.] 


108  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

When  in  use,  the  sand-paper  should  be  torn  off  in  pieces 
of  convenient  size,  and  a  bit  laid  on  the  plane  surface  of  a 
piece  of  cork  or  wood,  f -inch  thick,  and  of  a  good  size  to  be 
held  in  the  hands.  If  a  sufficiently  thick  piece  of  cork  can- 
not be  obtained,  a  thin  piece  should  be  glued  on  a  piece  of 
wood,  or,  failing  cork,  a  piece  of  card-board  will  answer  the 
purpose.  This  serves  the  purpose  of  a  soft  rubber  (wood 
alone  being  too  hard),  and  gives  the  necessary  support  to  the 
sand-paper,  which,  used  in  this  way,  acts  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  file,  and  may  be  considered  to  all  intents  and 

Sand-paper 

really  a  tool,  purposes  as  a  tool. 

Sand-paper  may  be  used  without  a  rubber  only  in  the 
case  of  concave  or  convex  surfaces,  where  there  are  no  sharp 
edges.  Care  must  be  taken  in  finishing  off  not  to  work  the 
paper  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  but  either  at  right  angles 
or  obliquely  to  it,  in  order  to  produce  a  smooth  surface.  Just 
at  the  last,  the  paper  may  be  passed  once  or  twice  in  the 
same  line  as  the  fibres,  to  remove  any  ridges  or  marks  which 
may  have  been  produced.  For  similar  reasons,  the  paper  last 
used  should  be  finer  than  that  first  employed,  in  order  to 
secure  a  perfectly  smooth  surface. 

Sand-paper  should  never  be  used  to  form,  or  smooth  up  the 
surface  of  objects.  The  knife,  the  file,  the  smoothing-plane, 

Sana-paper  the  scraper,  etc.  are  the  proper  tools  for  this  purpose.  Sand- 
paper should  be  used  only  in  finishing  off,  and  when  the  use 

Daringly,  of  the  smoothing-plane  is  understood,  it  is  not  much  needed 
for  plane  surfaces.  In  the  case  of  objects  with  curved 
surfaces,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  almost  indispensable. 

Finishing  off  with  sand-paper  should  never  be  done  in  a 
thoughtless,  mechanical  way.  To  attain  a  satisfactory  result 
the  greatest  attention  is  requisite. 

IX.  Brace  and  Bits. 

Bits  of  different  kinds  are  used  in  making  round  holes. 
Bits  for  wood  are  made  of  a  special  kind  of  steel,  one  end  of 
which  forms  the  cutting  portion  of  the  tool,  and  the  other  is 


TOOLS. 


109 


wedge-shaped,  that  it  may  be  securely  fastened  into  a  handle 
or  brace,  by  means  of  which  it  revolves.  In  working,  the 
brace  is  always  turned  to  the  right,  and  the  bits  are  made  to 
cut  in  the  same  direction.  The  edge  of  the  bit  is  designed  to 
make  its  way  into  the  wood  without  great  pressure,  and 
without  risk  of  splitting  it.  The  bit  must  work  without 
hindrance  from  the  shavings ;  otherwise 
it  will  become  hot  from  friction,  and 
boring  will  be  difficult.  A  good  bit  cuts 
like  a  knife,  detaches  smooth  spiral 
shavings,  and  becomes  only  moderately 
warm,  even  when  worked  quickly. 

The  brace  may  vary  in  construction. 
Fig.  70  shows  a  very  strong  Swedish 
brace  made  of  iron.  The  upper  end,  or 
tang  of  the  bit,  forms  a  square  truncated 
pyramid,  which  slots  into  a  hole  in  the 
brace  socket,  and  is  fastened  by  a  spring. 
Fig.  71  shows  an  American  brace,  also 
made  of  iron.  It  has  a  screw  adjustable 
socket,  into  which  the  bit  is  secured.  The 
tang  of  the  bit  may  be  of  any  form,  pro- 
vided it  is  somewhat  rectangular. 

Fig.  70.  Swedish  Brace. 


Fig.  71.    American  Brace  ;  section  of  screw  adjustable  socket,  or  bit  holder, 


no 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


The  bits  in  most  general  use  are  shell-bits  and  centre-bits. 
Small  shell-bits  are  called  pin-bits. 


D 


Fig.  72.    A,  Auger-bit.    B,  Centre-bit.    C,  Shell-bit  or pm-bit.  D,  Hole-rimer 
drill,    .ft1,  Screwdriver  bit.    F  and  G,  Counter-sink  drills.    ^. 

1.  The  shell-bit  (Fig.  72,  C)  is  gouge-shaped,  with  the  end 
curved  like  the  point  of  a  spoon.  Unlike  the  centre-bit,  it 
has  no  middle  point,  and  it  is  therefore  more  difficult  to  gauge 
to  holes  of  any  given  size,  especially  if  the  latter  are  large. 

This  bit  is  better  than  the  centre-bit  for  boring  end  pieces. 
Shell-bits  are  made  in  various  sizes,  from  those  adapted  for 
holes  of  rV  inch  in  diameter  to  those  suitable  for  holes  of 
1|  inch  in  diameter.  The  smallest  kind,  the  pin-bit,  is  most 
used  in  wood  slojd.  A  set  of  pin-bits  includes  from  8  to  10, 
varying  in  size  from  -|  inch  to  £  inch. 


2.    The  Centre-bit. 
1.     The  ordinary  centre-bit  (Fig.  72,  B,  and  73,  B)  has  a  flat 


The  ordi- 
nary centre- 
blade,  the  lower  portion  of  which  is  broader  than  the  upper, 
as  is  shown  in  the  illustrations.     In  the  middle  of  the  lower 
edge  is  the  centre-point  a,  and  at  one  side  is  the  cutter  b.    In 


TOOLS. 


Ill 


Fig.  73.    A,  Portion  of  Auger- 
bit.  •  £,  Portion  of  Centre-bit. 


boring,  the  cutter  makes  a  circular  incision   corresponding 

to  the  circumference  of  the  hole,  and  thus  determines  its 

diameter,  prevents  the  wood  from  splitting,  and  facilitates 

the  removal  of  shavings  and  sawdust  by  the  lip  c,  the  edge 

of  which  is  horizontal  to  the  point 

and  oblique  to  the  blade,  and  which 

cuts  at  right  angles  to  the  cutter. 

The  centre  point  is  longer  than  the 

cutter,  which  again  cuts  deeper  than 

the  lip.     In  sharpening  the  centre- 

bit,  which  may  be  done  with  a  small 

half-round  file,  care  must  be  taken 

that  the  edge  of  the  cutter  is  on  the 

j.          •  J  J   J.T-          j  £   J.-L       v       aa  Centre-point,  666  Cutter,  ccc  Lip. 

outer  side,  and  the  edge  of  the  lip 

on  the  under  side.    A  set  of  bits  should  contain  8  to  12  centre- 

bits,  from  -|  inch  to  1  inch  broad. 

2.  The  auger  (Fig.  72,^1)  belongs  to  the  same  class.  In 
boring  with  the  bits  previously  described,  it  is  necessary  to 
exercise  a  certain  degree  of  pressure,  but  the  auger  works  its  Wav  in 

•    A     j.1,  JV  £^  •      1  1,-'U£  vhichthe 

way  into  the  wood  by  means  or  the  conical  screw  which  torms  auger  works. 
its  centre  point,  and  after  the  screw  has  once  started  all  that 
is  needed  is  to  make  it  revolve.     The  auger  is  besides  fur- 
nished with  a  cutter  and  a  lip  on  both  sides  of  the  screw. 
(See  Fig.  73,  A.) 

Above  the  cutting  portion  it  is  spiral  in  form,  and  thus  we 
have  a  double  spiral  with  sharp  edges.  This  gives  plenty  of 
room  for  the  sawdust  and  shavings  which  are  worked  out  of 
the  hole  without  the  removal  of  the  auger.  The  American 
augers  are  the  best.  A  set  includes  6  to  12  pieces, 

o     .       i      ,       -,    •       r 

inch  to  1  inch. 


augers. 


Fig.  74. — Expansion  bit    3. 


112 


HANDBOOK    OF   SLOJD. 


Adjustable 
or  expansion 
bitt. 


Screwdriver 
bit,  counter- 
link  drill, 
ami  hole- 
rimer. 


The  expansion  bit  (Fig.  74)  is  of  American  construction. 
Within  certain  limits  it  admits  of  holes  of  different  sizes 
being  bored  with  one  and  the  same  bit.  Its  point,  lip,  and 
cutter  are  tolerably  like  those  of  the  auger,  but  it  is  furnished 
with  two  loose  cutters,  which  may  be  screwed  in  to  suit  the 
diameter  desired.  The  adj ustable  cutter  does  the  work  both  of 
lip  and  cutter.  The  expansion  bit  makes  holes  with  remark- 
ably even  surfaces,  and  with  two  different  sizes  it  is  possible 
to  bore  holes  varying  in  diameter  from  ^  inch  to  3  inches. 

A  screw-driver  bit  (Fig.  72,  E),  two  or  three  counter-sink 
drills  (Fig.  72,  F  and  G),  and  a  couple  of  square  or  hexagonal 
hole-rimers  (Fig.  72,  D)  are  usually  included  in 
a  complete  set  of  bits.  The  counter-sink  drill 
is  used  to  produce  a  conical  hole  in  wood  or 
metal,  suitable  for  sinking  screw-heads.  The 
rimer  enlarges  holes  in  thin  metal  plates,  e.g., 
screw  holes  in  hinge-plates. 

3.  The  Bradawl  (Fig.  75).  This  tool  consists 
of  a  steel  bit  TV  inch  to  £  inch  thick,  and  2  inches 
long.  Its  point  is  like  that  of  an  awl,  or  it  may  be 
chisel-pointed.  The  bit  is  secured  in  the  handle 
by  a  screw-socket.  Several  bits  of  different 
sizes  belong  to  the  tool,  and  the  handle,  which 
is  hollow,  serves  as  a  case  for  them.  The  brad- 
awl is  used  to  bore  holes  for  sprigs,  nails,  etc. 
When  holes  are  bored  with  the  chisel-pointed 
bit,  the  edge  is  placed  across  the  grain  of  the 
FiS-  75.  Brad-  wood,  and  pressure  is  exerted  in  this  direction 
to  prevent  the  splitting  of  the  wood. 

X.  The  Mallet,  the  Hammer,  the  Hand  Vice,  Pincers, 
and  Screwdriver. 

The  Mallet  (Fig.  76)  is  made  of  hard,  strong  wood,  pre- 
ferably of  figured  beech.  It  is  used  for  striking  tools  with 
wooden  handles,  because  the  hard  hammer  in  such  cases 


TOOLS. 


113 


would  not  only  do  damage,  but  would  not  serve  the  purpose 
so  well. 


The  Hammer  (Fig.  77)  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  steel  with  a 
hole  for  the  handle,  called  the 
eye.  One  end  is  cylindrical  and 
terminates  in  a  flat  surface, 
called  the  face;  the  other  end, 
which  is  called  the  pane,  is 
wedge-shaped,  with  a  rounded 
edge.  That  the  handle  may  be 
quite  firm,  the  eye  widens  at  the 
sides,  and  wedges  driven  hard 
into  the  end  of  the  handle  cause 
it  to  fill  up  the  cavity  entirely.  Fig.  76.  Mallet, 


Fig.  77.  Ham- 
mer. I 


There  are  various  kinds  of  pincers,  but  only  those  used 
in  wood  slojd  need  be  named  here.  Pincers  have  two  steel 
arms  rivetted  together.  The  rivet  divides  the  arms  into  two 
unequal  portions, 
the  longer,  or 
handles,  and  the 
shorter,  or  jaws. 

The   ordinary 
pincers     have  Fig.  78.    Pincers.    J. 

short,  broad,  sharply  curved  jaws,  and  are  used  to  extract 
nails,  etc. 

The  wire-cutter  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  slighter  in 
make,  and  its 
arms  are  curved 
and  its  jaws 
sharper.  It  is 
used  to  snap  off 
pieces  of  wire,  tin-  Fig.  79.  Wire-cutter.  £. 

tacks,  etc.     The  jaws  of  the  flat  pliers  are  flat  on  the  inner 


114 


HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 


Fig.  81-    Round-jawed  Pliers. 


Shape  of  the 
fcrewdriver. 


side,  which  is  file- 
cut  to  enable 
them  to  take  fast 
hold  of  small 
pieces  of  metal  to 
be  filed,  bent,  &c. 
In  the  round 
pliers  the  jaws 
are  more  or  less 
conical  in  shape, 
for  the  bending  of 
i-  .  wire,  etc. 

The  hand-vice  is  not  so 
much  employed  in  slb'jd- 
carpentry  as  in  metal  slojd. 
Its  chief  use  is  to  secure 
small  pieces  of  metal  for 
filing.  It  may  be  held  in 
the  hand,  or,  after  the  piece 
of  metal  has  been  made 
fast,  it  may  itself  be  screwed 
into  a  hand-screw  or  to  the 
bench,  that  both  hands  may 
be  free  for  the  work  of 
filing. 

The  screwdriver  is  used  for  driving  in  screws, 
and  is  made  of  hard  steel.     At  the  end  it  is  bev- 
elled to  a  thick  point,  which  varies  from  /T-inch 
to  jV-inch  in  thickness,  depending  on  the  size  of 
.  the  screw  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 
Fig.  83.         The  bevelled  edges  should  be  parallel,  and  the 
,        '  point  should  be  as  little  as  possible  like  a  wedge 
in  shape,  but  should  lie  flat  in  the  slit  of  the  nail. 

a   the   point,        .,  .  '       .  mi 

full  size,  seen  otherwise   it  will   have  a  tendency  to  slip  and 
from  the  suie.  become  chipped. 


Fig.  82.     Hand-vice. 


TOOLS.  115 

E.    The  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Tools. 

Work  'must  never  be  done  ^uith  blunt  or  badly-set  tools. 
Tools  must  always  be  kept  sharp  and  in  good  order. 

These  rules  should  ahvays  be  kept  in  mind.  Many  a 
slojder  toils  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow  with  a  blunt  saw,  or  a 
badly  set  blunt  plane,  rather  than  take  time  to  put  his  tool 
in  order,  though  tools  in  good  condition  save  hours  of  work, 
much  unnecessary  trouble,  and  needless  vexation.  Blunt 
tools  demand  more  strength  and  exertion  than  sharp  ones, 
and  seldom,  if  ever,  produce  such  good  results.  The  rules 
given  above  are  especially  important  in  the  case  of  children, 
for  whom  work  ought  not  to  be  made  unnecessarily  difficult. 
The  sharpening  of  edge-tools  is  performed  on  the  grind- 
stone and  the  oilstone.  The  method  of  sharpening  a  saw  has 
already  been  described  (pp.  80,  81). 

The  ordinary  Grindstone  consists  of  a  circular  slab  of 
sandstone,  which  rotates  on  an  axle,  and  is  provided  with  a 
handle  for  turning.  It  is  supported  on  a  grindstone  stand 
or  bench.  Below  the  stone  is  a  wooden  well,  lined  with  zinc, 
partially  filled  with  water,  into  which  the  stone  is  sunk 
about  one  inch  when  in  use.  The  stone  should  not  be  too 
fine  in  the  grain  or  too  hard. 

The  grindstone  should  never  be  used  dry,  because  the  steel  care  of  the 
does  not  "  catch  "  well  unless  the  stone  is  wet,  and  the  friction 
on  a  dry  stone  "  burns  "  the  steel  and  makes  the  edge  of  the 
tool  soft.  Exposure  to  the  sun  for  any  length  of  time  makes 
the  stone  too  hard,  while  prolonged  immersion  of  any  portion 
of  it  in  water  renders  that  portion  soft.  Consequently  it 
wears  faster,  and  the  stone  becomes  uneven  or  eccentric. 
The  stone  should  therefore  be  kept  dry  except  when  in  use. 

A  frame-work  attached  to  the  stand  prevents  splashing 
when  the  stone  rotates  by  directing  the  water  down  into  the 
well,  and  splashing  may  still  further  be  avoided  by  fastening 
a  thick  piece  of  stuff  in  front  so  that  it  trails  upon  the  stone 


116  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

and  absorbs  a  portion  of  the  surplus  water.  The  stone  must 
always  be  turned  towards  the  worker  and  towards  the  edge 
of  the  tool,  which  must  be  moved  steadily,  and  with  equal 
pressure  from  side  to  side,  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
stone,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  scratches  or  depressions  on 
its  circumference.  The  bevelled  edge  produced  by  grinding 
must  present  either  a  flat  or  a  concave  surface  to  the  convex 
surface  of  the  stone.  It  must  never  be  convex.  The  con- 

stmight  cave  form  of  the  bevelled  edge  is  advantageous,  because  it 
materially  lightens  the  final  sharpening  on  the  oilstone. 
The  edge  must  also  be  quite  straight  unless  a  curved  edge  is 
actually  required. 

As  it  is  difficult,  especially  for  the  inexperienced,  to  hold 
the  steel  steadily  enough  against  the  stone,  a  grinding  sup- 

Accurate     port  has  been  invented.     Such  a  support  of  American  make 

dtllg-     is  shown  in  Fig.  84.     It  consists  of  an  iron  frame  into  which 

the  plane-iron  or  the  chisel  is  screwed.     A  small  wheel  below 


Fig.  SI.    Grinding  support,    i. 

the  frame  revolves  upon  the  grindstone,  and  the  desired  angle 
on  the  edge  of  the  tool  is  obtained  by  fastening  it  in  with 
the  edge  at  a  shorter  or  longer  distance  from  the  frame.  By 
means  of  this  simple  contrivance  even  an  inexpert  pupil  is 
able  to  grind  a  plane-iron  correctly. 

A  very  common  fault  in  grinding  is  to  make  the  angle 
which  the  bevelled  edge  makes  with  the  face  of  the  tool  too 


TOOLS. 


117 


great,  i.e.,  to  make  the  edge  too  thick.  This  is  often  done 
by  beginners  in  their  haste  to  be  relieved  from  grinding. 

The  tool  must  be  ground  till  a  raw  edge  appears,  i.e.,  the  The  raw 
very  thin  "  film  "  or  hair  produced  by  the  grindstone's  remov-  edye- 
ing  the  very  edge  of  the  steel.     This,  in  its  turn,  is  removed 
by  the  oilstone. 

Sharpening  with  the  oilstone  is  necessary,  because  the  edge 
produced  by  the  coarse-grained  grindstone  is  neither  fine 
enough  nor  even  enough  for  immediate  use. 

The  oilstone  is  a 
slab  of  specially  fine- 
grained stone.  "Wash- 
ita"  and  "Arkansas" 
stones  from  America,  The  &««« 

^    tt  m      i          »      L  oilstones. 

and  "Turkey     stones 
Fig.  85.    Oilstone  and  case.  i.  ,,      -,      ,       rTr7  -,  , 

are  the  best.     [Welsh 

oilstones  are  less  expensive,  and  can  thoroughly  be  recom- 
mended.— TRS.]  The  oilstone  should  be  8  inches  long  and  2| 
inches  broad,  and  it  should  be  kept  in  a  wooden  box  with  a 
cover  (Fig.  85).  A  good  oilstone  is  very  hard  and  close- 
grained,  and  it  "  takes  well,"  i.e.,  it  acts  almost  like  a  very 
fine  file  on  the  steel.  The  colour  is  yellowish-white.  They 
last  a  long  time,  but  are  expensive  to  buy. 

When  in  use,  the  oilstone  should  be  moistened  with  veget- 
able oil.    The  addition  of  a  little  paraffin  is  an  improvement.  Method  of 
The  tool  is  held  in  both  hands,  and  the  bevelled  edge  is  applied  M*/nflr  the 

oilstone. 

closely  to  the  stone  in  such  a  way  that,  while  the  bevel  is 
altogether  in  contact  with  the  stone,  the  edge  presses  rather 
more  heavily  on  it,  and  this  angle  of  inclination  must  be 
steadily  maintained  to  prevent  the  edge  from  becoming 
rounded.  The  steel  is  now  drawn  over  the  stone  with  a  slow, 
steady,  backward  and  forward  motion.  When  this  has  been 
repeated  often  enough,  it  is  turned  over  and  passed  once  over 
the  stone  with  the  face  flat.  The  worker  must  not  confine 
his  operations  to  the  middle  of  the  stone,  but  must  use  the 
whole  of  the  surface. 


118  HANDBOOK    OP   SLOJD. 

An  oilstone  slip,  i.e.,  a  piece  of  the  same  kind  of  stone  as 
the  oilstone,  but  smaller  and  thinner,  and  rounded  at  the 
edges,  is  required  for  the  sharpening  of  gouges,  spoon-irons,  etc. 
A  sharp  Sharpening  must  be  continued  until  the  edge  itself  is  not 
visible  when  held  up  against  the  light,  or  until  it  no  longer 
appears  white  and  rounded.  Its  sharpness  is  tested  by  touch 
ing  it  lightly  with  the  finger. 

F.  The  Tool  Cupboard. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  procure  a  tool  cup- 
board, complete  drawings  of  one  are  given  in  Plate  XI.  It 
is  so  arranged  that  every  tool  has  a  fixed,  easily  observed 
place,  in  order  that  the  absence  of  any  may  be  readily  dis- 
covered when  the  tools  are  laid  past.  Tools  must  further  be 
so  arranged  that  when  one  is  taken  out  another  is  not  dis- 
placed ;  and  all  sharp  edges  must  be  protected. 

Any  alterations  in  the  size  of  the  cupboard,  required  by  a 
larger  or  smaller  stock  of  tools,  could  easily  be  made. 


119 


CHAPTER  IV. 

JOINTING. 

Different  parts  of  articles  are  connected  or  jointed  partly 
by  glue,  nails,  or  screws,  and  partly  by  the  special  adaption 
of  the  parts  themselves,  as  in  mortising  and  dove-tailing. 

A.    Glueing. 

The  simplest  way  of  jointing  two  pieces  of  wood  is  to 
introduce  between  them  a  connecting  medium  in  liquid  form, 
i.e.,  glue. 

Glue  is  made  from  the  refuse,  clippings,  etc.,  of  tanneries 
and  glove  manufactories.  After  being  subjected  to  a  boiling 
process,  these  materials  are  reduced  to  a  viscous  fluid,  which 
solidifies  on  cooling  into  a  stiffish  jelly,  which  is  then  cut 
into  thin  slices  and  dried  upon  nets  stretched  on  frames. 

Good  glue  is  known  by  its  light  brown  or  brownish  yellow 
colour ;  its  sparkling  transparency ;  its  hardness  and  elas- 
ticity ;  by  the  way  it  breaks  off  in  flakes  and  whitens  in  the 
line  of  fracture ;  and  by  its  power  of  resistance  to  the  damp- 
ness of  the  air.  It  swells  if  steeped  in  cold  water,  but  does 
not  melt  even  after  one  or  two  days'  immersion.  The  ulti- 
mate test  of  good  glue  is,  however,  its  cementing  power. 

1.   The  Preparation  of  Glue. 

The  cakes  of  glue,  either  entire  or  in  pieces,  are  first 
soaked  in  cold  water.  After  the  glue  swells  it  is  put  in  a 
glue-pot  (Fig.  86)  and  melted  by  heat.  The  glue-pot  consists 
of  two  pans  usually  made  of  cast-iron  or  tin-plate.  The 
larger  of  these,  the  outside  pan,  is,  when  in  use,  half  filled 


120 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


with  water,  and  the  smaller  one,  the  inside  pan  or  glue-pot 
proper,  in  which  the  glue  is  placed,  rests  upon  a  rim  or  flange 
round  its  mouth.  This  inner  pan  should  always  be  lined 
with  tin.  The  water  in  the  outer  pan  prevents  the  glue  from 
burning,  (an  accident  which  must  always  be  carefully 
avoided),  and  as  the  contents  of  the  glue-pot  are  surrounded 
by  warm  water,  they  may  be  kept  fluid  and  fit  for  use  a  con- 
siderable time  after  the  pan  has  been  removed  from  the  fire. 
If  glue  is  wanted  in  a  hurry,  the  cakes  may  be  put  in  a 
towel  or  a  similar  piece  of  stuff  to  keep  the  glue  from  being 
scattered  about,  and  broken  to  pieces  with  a  hammer.  The 
pieces  are  then  put  into  the  glue-pot  and  stirred  during  boil- 
ing, to  prevent  unmelted  glue  sticking  to  the  bottom.  This 
mode  of  preparation  is  quite  as  good  as  the  preceding. 


Fig.  80.     Glue  Pot  Outside  Pan.     J-. 

(inside  pan)  and  Brush. 

Glue  is  applied  with  a  strong  brush,  of  which  there  should 
be  two  sizes,  one  for  large  surfaces  and  one  for  small  sur- 
faces, e.g.,  mortise  holes,  etc. 

Liquid  Glue.— The  addition  of  acetic  acid  to  melted  glue 
prevents  putrefaction,  and,  without  lessening  its  cementing 
power,  keeps  it  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  "  Liquid 
glue  "  may  be  made  as  follows  : — Four  parts  of  good  glue  are 
melted  in  four  parts  diluted  acetic  acid,  in  the  outer  pan,  or 


JOINTING.  121 

on  the  top  of  an  oven.  One  part  spirits  of  wine  and  a  small 
quantity  of  alum  are  then  added,  and  the  mixture  is  kept  in 
a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  the  cork  of  which  has  a  hole  to  admit 
the  brush. 

This  glue  remains  liquid  at  +  14°  to  18°  C.,  and  does  not 
solidify  until  +  8°  to  12°  C. ;  it  is  very  convenient  for  small 
articles,  as  it  is  always  ready  and  in  good  condition,  and  its 
cementing  power  is  quite  equal  to  that  of  glue  prepared  in 
the  ordinary  way.  Its  only  drawback  is  that  it  dries  more 
slowly. 

In  the  case  of  articles  exposed  to  moisture,  the  addition  of 
10  per  cent,  of  boiled  linseed  oil  is  advantageous.  The  glue 
to  which  it  is  added  should  be  hot  and  strong,  and  should  be 
stirred  till  the  varnish  has  been  thoroughly  mixed.  The 
wood  to  which  this  wood-cement  is  applied  should  be  dry  and 
warm,  and  the  pieces  should  be  firmly  pressed  together  until 
the  glue  dries. 

2..    Glueing. 

The  process  of  glueing  is  very  simple,  but  it  must  be  care- 
fully performed  to  ensure  a  strong  inconspicuous  joint.  The 
general  rule  holds  good  that  the  layer  of  glue  shall  be  so 
thin  that  the  seam  can  hardly  be  seen,  and  this  presupposes 
that  the  pieces  fit  accurately  (see  page  146),  that  they  are 
kept  in  sufficiently  close  contact  while  the  glue  is  drying, 
and  that  the  glue  itself  does  not  cool  before  they  are  put 
properly  together. 

To  keep  the  glue  from  cooling,  the  wood  should  be  warmed  warming 
as  well  as  the  glue,  and  the  operations  of  applying  the  latter, the  wood' 
putting  the  pieces  together  and  applying  the  required  pressure, 
must  be  rapidly  performed.     Generally  speaking,  it  is  suffi- 
cient if  one  of  the  wooden  surfaces  is  warmed  :  thus  in  dove- 
tailing and  slotting  the  pins  only  are  warmed  ;  in  blocking, 
the  blocks  only,  etc. 

The  glue,  which  must  be  neither  too  thick  nor  too  thin,  is  Laying  on 
laid  evenly  and  quickly,  in  as  small  a  quantity  as  possible, the  glwe- 
over  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  the  brush. 


122  HANDBOOK   OP   SLOJD. 

In  the  case  of  pins  for  mortising,  the  glue  should  be  thicker 
than  for  jointing  boards,  and  the  glue  is  generally  applied  to 
the  hole  as  well  as  to  the  previously  warmed  pin,  though 
sometimes  only  to  the  latter. 

Screwing  together  is  performed  either  in  the  bench,  which 
is  the  simplest  method,  or  in  hand-screws,  or  in  a  press  with 
wedges.  The  article  must  remain  under  pressure  till  the 
glue  dries.  If  the  glue  is  too  thick  or  the  wood  cold,  or  if 
the  glue  cools  before  screwing  up,  the  joint  will  show,  and 
will  not  be  good.  A  joint  of  this  kind  does  not  look  well, 
and  is  less  durable  than  one  properly  glued  together. 
a  The  bench  pegs  or  the  hand-screw  should  always  be  in 
joint.  order  before  glueing,  to  save  time.  Just  before  the  final 
tightening  of  the  screw,  the  work  should  be  carefully  ex- 
amined to  see  if  the  parts  are  in  their  right  places.  If  not 
they  must  be  made  to  fit.  If  the  staves  of  a  barrel  are  not 
in  the  same  plane,  the  screw  must  not  be  loosened,  but  the 
stave  which  is  not  Hush  must  be  hammered  into  place,  and 
the  screws  tightened.  The  work  must  not  again  be  disturbed 
till  the  glue  has  hardened. 

In  screwing  up  finished  pieces  of  work,  bits  of  wood  must 
always  be  put  between  the  work  and  the  bench-pegs  or  the 
point  of  the  screw,  to  prevent  marks.  When  large  plane 
surfaces  are  glued  together,  it  is  necessary  to  use  several 
cramps  to  obtain  strong  enough  pressure. 

Removal  of  The  glue  which  exudes  from  the  joints  of  objects  which 
are  finished  off  before  glueing,  e.g.,  the  inside  of  a  drawer, 
must  be  carefully  wiped  off  with  a  clean  sponge  or  rag  dipped 
in  warm  water  immediately  after  glueing  together,  before  it 
completely  dries.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  wet  the  wood 
unnecessarily. 

The  better  the  glue  penetrates  the  pores  of  the  wood,  the 
stronger  the  joint.  Consequently,  glue  holds  better  in  loose- 
fibred  than  in  close-grained  wood,  which  presents  a  hard, 
smooth  surface.  Broad  surfaces  of  the  latter  description  are 
roughened  a  little  before  glueing,  by  drawing  a  coarse  file 


JOINTING.  123 

over  them.*  Glue  which  dries  slowly  is  stronger  than  that 
which  dries  quickly. 

A  well-fitting  joint  made  with  good  glue  is  so  strong  that,  strong  and 
when  long  boards  are  joined  together,  the  wood  itself  gener-  We_ak0lue 

J  °  joints. 

ally  gives  way  before  the  joint.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case  when  end  pieces  are  joined  together,  or  when  the  wood 
is  very  hard  or  close-grained. 

Two  pieces  of  wood  may  be  glued  together  without  cramp- 
ing or  screwing  together,  e.g.,  a  block  of  wood  on  a  plank. 
The  block  only  is  warmed,  but  glue  is  laid  upon  both.  The 
former  is  then  pressed  upon  the  latter,  and  rubbed  backwards 
and  forwards  to  get  rid  of  the  superfluous  glue,  until  it  be- 
gins to  adhere.  Care  must  now  be  taken  that  it  is  in  its 
right  place,  and  is  not  further  disturbed.  The  two  pieces 
adhere  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

B.  Nailing. 

Sprigs  of  different  lengths  and  thicknesses  are  generally 
used  for  nailing  together  slojd-work,  but  for  large  or  heavy 
articles  cut  or  beat  nails  are  employed,  because  their  uneven 
surface  is  more  tenacious,  and  thus  gives  greater  strength  to 
the  joint.  Before  the  nail  is  hammered  in,  a  hole  should  be 
bored  with  the  pin-bit  or  the  bradawl  to  prevent  splitting. 
The  diameter  of  this  hole  should  not  exceed  two-thirds  of 
that  of  the  thickest  part  of  the  nail,  and  the  nail  should  be  hit 
straight  on  the  head,  to  prevent  it  from  bending  or  going  in 
crooked. 

The  firm  hold  of  the  nail  in  the  wood  depends  partly  on  The  strength. 
the  more  or  less  rough  nature  of  its  surface,  partly  on  its  °f 
length  and  thickness,  partly  on  the  kind  of  wood,  and  partly 
on  the  direction  of  the  nail  in  relation  to  the  fibres,  i.e., 
whether  it  is  driven  into  a  long  board  or  into  an  end  piece. 
The  strongest  joint  is  made  with  beat  nails  in  a  cross  piece  ; 

*  There  is  a  special  tool  for  this  purpose  used  in  veneering,  &c.,  called  the 
"  toothing-plane." — TBS. 


124  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

the  weakest  with  beat  sprigs  in  an  end  piece.  The  pre- 
liminary boring  does  not  affect  the  hold  of  the  nail  in  the 
wood  unless  it  is  too  deep  or  too  wide.  A  hole  half  the 
depth  and  half  the  diameter  of  the  thickest  part  of  the  nail 
exercises  no  noticeable  influence  on  the  strength  of  the  joint. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  sink  the  nail  under  the  plane 
of  the  surface,  that  it  may  not  present  any  obstacle  to 
smoothing  up  or  finishing  off  the  work.  After  the  nail  has 
been  hammered  in  by  the  ordinary  method,  a  small  steel 
punch  about  4  inches  long  and  £  inch  thick,  tapering  to  a 
thick  point  rather  less  in  diameter  than  the  head  of  the 
nail,  is  used  to  sink  it.  The  punch  is  placed  on  the  head  of 
the  nail,  and  hammered  till  the  head  sinks  to  the  depth  re- 
quired. 

Wooden  pins  are  sometimes  used  for  jointing.  They  are 
made  of  straight,  split  wood,  and  have  four  sides,  often  with 
bevelled  corners,  tapering  slightly  to  a  blunt  point.  They 
are  driven  into  holes  previously  bored  which  their  bevelled 
corners  enable  them  to  fit  closely  without  splitting  the  wood. 
Glue  is  often  added  to  strengthen  their  hold.  These  wooden 
pins  are  called  dowels. 

C.    Screwing   together. 

Wood-screws,  i.e.,  metal  screws  with  thin,  deep,  sharp- 
edged  tap-worms,  are  used  for  screw-joints.  Screws  which 
are  gimlet-pointed  penetrate  the  wood  more  easily  than 
others. 

The  wood-screws  used  in  screw-joints  are  of  different 
kinds,  with  half-round,  curtailed  conical,  or  square  heads. 
The  two  first  only  are  used  in  wood-slojd.  In  both,  the  head 
of  the  nail  is  furnished  with  a  slit  for  receiving  the  screw- 
driver. 


JOINTING. 


125 


When  A  (Fig.  87)  is  used,  the  head  of  the 
screw  remains  above  the  surface  of  the  wood. 
In  joints  made  with  B,  the  head  is  made  to  lie 
level  with  the  surface,  for  which  purpose  the 
hole  bored  for  its  reception  is  afterwards 
counter-sunk.  Wood-screws  are  made  in  many 
lengths  from  about  £  inch  to  3  inches,  and  of 
varying  thickness.  They  are  very  generally 
Fig.  87.  used,  and  are  especially  useful  for  articles 

••I  T  J        C1  f  It 

i*.  u  ,c,rews'     which  require  sometimes  to  be  taken  apart 

A.  with  half-round, 

B  with  conical  head,  and  put  together  again. 

In  consequence  of  their  peculiar  form,  screws  give  a  much  strength,  of 
stronger  and  firmer  joint  than  nails,  which  hold  the  pieces  a' 
together  simply  by  friction.     A  screw  cannot  be  drawn  out 
without  unscrewing,  unless  the  wood  around  it  is  cut  away. 
The  hole  bored  for  the  reception  of  the  screw  should  be  as 
deep  as  the  length  of  the  unwormed  portion. 

D.    Jointing  by  means  of  the  formation 
of  the  parts  of  the  joint. 

The  names  only  of  the  various  kinds  of  jointing  of  this 
nature  are  given  below.  A  description  will  be  found  in 
Chapter  V. 

1.  Halving. 

2.  Mitreing. 

3.  Slotting. 

4.  Mortise  and  Tenon-jointing. 

5.  Groove-jointing. 

6.  Dove-tailing. 

7.  Hooping. 


126 


FIFTH 
E   X   E    R 


5s 

£        X 
F-4        53 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


Long  cut. 


2  '  Cross  cut. 


3  Oblique  cut. 

4  Bevel  cut. 


To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  direction 
of  the  leno-th  of  the  fibres. 


Fig.  88. 

To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wood  at  right  angles  to 
the  fibres. 


Fig.  89. 

To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wood  obliquely  to  the 
fibres. 

To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  fibres  in  such  a  way 
as  to  produce  a  surface  at  an  oblique 
angle  to  the  adjacent  surfaces. 


CHAPTER. 

C   I   S   E   S  . 


127 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Knife. 


Knife. 


Knife. 
Knife. 


The  knife  is  taken  firmly  by  the  handle,  and  the  cut  is  made 
always  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  but  away  from  the 
worker.  To  steady  and  strengthen  the  hand  which 
holds  the  wood,  and  to  render  the  exercise  easier,  the 
piece  of  wood  should  always  rest  upon  a  board  laid  on 
the  bench. 


The  cut  is  made  from  both  sides  to  avoid  splitting  (a — 6). 
If  the  cut  is  short,  the  wood  is  laid  upon  the  bench. 
If  it  is  long,  the  wood  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the  upper 
arm  is  pressed  against  the  body  to  secure  greater 
strength  and  support  during  the  exercise.  For  the 
manner  of  holding  the  knife  see  Ex.  1.  For  the  proper 
position  see  Plate  I. 


The  cut  is  made  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  not  contrary  to 
it.    For  the  manner  of  execution  see  No.  2  (Fig.  89  c — d). 

For  the  manner  of  execution  see  No.  1. 


128 


—        -j 

2   1 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


Sawing  off. 


6     Convex  cut. 


To  saw  off  a  piece  of  wood  at  right  angles  to 
the  fibres. 


To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wood,  convex  in  shape. 

X 

ell 


Long-sawing, 


Edge-planing. 


Fig.  90. 
To  rip  up  a  piece  of  wood  lengthwise. 


To  plane  a  piece  of   wood,  the  surface  of 
which  is  narrower  than  the  plane-iron. 


Fig.  91. 


129 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 


Knife. 


The  piece  of  wood  is  screwed  into  the  bench,  and  the  saw  is 
worked  with  long,  gentle  strokes  parallel  with  the  edge 
of  the  bench  (see  Fig.  89  a— b,  and  page  84).  The  final 
strokes  must  be  made  cautiously,  because  the  wood  may 
easily  be  split.  Before  beginning  the  exercise,  the 
worker  should  see  that  both  edges  of  the  saw  are  in  the 
same  plane,  and  that  the  teeth  of  the  saw  point  away 
from  him. 

The  fibres  are  cut  obliquely  (a— 6).  See  further  under  No.  3. 
(See  also  Plate  I.  for  the  position  of  the  worker.) 


Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 

Trying-plane. 


For  the  method  of  execution,  see  No.  5. 
for  the  position  of  the  worker. 


See  also  Plate  II. 


The  piece  of  wood  is  fastened  between  the  bench-pegs  so 
that  it  lies  firmly  and  evenly  upon  the  bench.  Before 
the  plane  is  used  it  should  be  carefully  set  for  the  par- 
ticular kind  of  wood  to  be  planed,  i.e.,  the  plane-iron 
should  corne  lower  down  in  the  case  of  loose-fibred  wood 
than  for  hard  wood,  and  the  cover  should  be  placed 
farther  from  the  edge  of  the  iron  in  the  former  case  than 
in  the  latter  (see  page  98).  The  handle  of  the  plane  is 
firmly  grasped  in  one  hand,"and  the  other  is  placed  right 
in  front  of  the  socket.  The  plane  is  then  worked 
briskly  to  and  fro  over  the  surface.  The  path  of  the 
plane  must  always  be  horizontal,  regulated  by  the 
difference  in  the  pressure  given  by  one  or  other  of  the 
hands.  For  the  position  of  the  worker,  see  Plate  III. 


130 


I  J 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


Squaring. 


To  prove  whether  two  plane  surfaces  in  a 
piece  of  wood  are  at  right  angles. 


10 


Gauging. 


Fig.  92. 


To  produce  parallel  lines  at  a  given  distance 
from  the  edge  of  the  work. 


Fig.  93. 


131 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Square. 


The  stock  of  the  square  is  grasped  in  one  hand ;  and  its 
inner  surface  is  applied  close  to  the  face  of  the  work 
(i.e.,  the  side  first  planed),  while  the  blade  rests  upon 
the  other  side. 


Marking  gauge. 


The  stock  of  the  marking  gauge  is  held  steadily  and  closely 
to  the  faced-up  sides  of  the  work  parallel  to  which  the 
line  is  to  be  made. 


132 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


11 


12 


13 


Boring  with  the 
shell-bit  (pin- 
bit). 


Face-planing. 


Filing. 


Boring  with  the 
centre-bit. 


To  make  a  hole  of  small  diameter. 


To  plane  a  piece  of  wood  when  the  surface 
is  broader  than  the  plane-iron. 


To  dress  up  rough  surfaces. 


To  make  a  hole  of  large  diameter. 


133 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Shell-bit  (pin- 
bit). 


Trying-plane. 


File. 


Centre-bit. 


The  object  in  view  is  partly  to  make  a  hole  and  partly  to 
avoid  splitting  the  wood,  when  sprigs,  larger  nails,  or 
screws  are  put  in.  The  left  hand  is  laid  upon  the  brace 
stock,  to  give  pressure  from  above  downwards ;  the 
right  hand  grasps  the  handle  in  the  middle,  and  the 
brace  is  turned  towards  the  right,  care  being  taken  that 
the  centre  of  the  bit  enters  the  right  place  in  the  wood, 
and  that  the  direction  of  the  hole  is  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  work  or  the  bench.  The  latter  con- 
dition presents  some  difficulty,  especially  to  beginners, 
and  is  best  fulfilled  by  the  slojder's  standing  alternately 
in  one  of  two  positions,  in  order  that  he  may  see  the  bit 
from  each  side  of  a  right  angle.  To  give  greater  pres- 
sure and  steadiness,  the  chin  may  be  made  to  rest  on 
the  left  hand.  For  the  position  of  the  worker  see 
Plate  IV.  and  V. 

The  manner  of  execution  is  shewn  in  No.  8  and  in  Fig.  91. 
The  broader  the  surface,  the  more  difficult  is  the  exercise. 
To  test  whether  the  surface  is  really  level,  the  plane  is 
laid  across  it ;  or,  better  still,  winding  laths  are  laid,  one 
on  each  end  of  the  piece  of  work.  If  the  upper  edges 
lie  in  the  same  plane  the  surface  is  true. 

When  the  plane  surface  of  an  end  piece  is  to  be  dressed  up, 
the  piece  of  wood  should  be  secured  in  the  carpenter's 
bench.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  surface  is  convex,  the 
work  should  merely  be  supported  on  it.  In  the  former 
case  the  handle  of  the  file  is  firmly  grasped  in  one  hand, 
whilst  the  other  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  blade  near 
the  point.  The  tool  is  then  passed  steadily  and  evenly 
over  the  surface,  pressure  being  exerted  only  when  the 
file  is  going  from  the  worker.  If  the  work  merely  rests 
on  the  bench,  the  file  can  of  course  only  be  worked  with 
one  hand.  When  rounded  surfaces  are  filed,  the  tool  is 
worked  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  or  when  this  is 
impossible,  obliquely  to  them. 

For  method  of  execution  see  No.  11.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  bit  cuts  evenly. 


134 


.Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


15 
16 


Convex  sawing. 
Concave  cut. 


To  saw  out  a  shape  following  a  curved  line. 
To  cut  out  a  concave  shape. 


17 


18 


19 


20 


Bevelling. 


Convex  model- 
ling ivith  the 
plane. 

Sawing  with 
tenon-saw. 


Wave-sawing. 


Fig.  94. 


To  plane  a  bevelled  edge. 


To  plane  a  convex  surface. 


To  saw  carefully  when  no  other  saw  can  as 
advantageously  be  used. 


To  saw  out  after  a  curved  line. 


21 


Plane  surface 
cut. 


Fig.  95. 
To  form  a  broad  surface  with  the  knife. 


135 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Turn-saw. 
Knife. 


Trying-plane. 


Smoothing- 
plane. 

Tenon-saw. 


Turn-saw. 


Knife. 


The  saw  is  worked  in  the  direction  of  a  curve  previously 

drawn  (see  Fig.  90,  a — 6). 
The  knife  is  worked  both  from  the  worker  and  towards  him, 

while  the  arm  is  pressed  gently  against  the  side,  to 

steady  the  hand  which  holds  the  work.    See  farther 

No.  1. 


The  plane  is  made  to  produce  a  surface  at  an  oblique  angle 
to  two  others,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  fibres.  See 
farther  No.  8. 

The  work  is  fastened  between  the  bench-pegs.  See  No.  8 
for  method  of  execution. 

As  the  tenon  saw  has  smaller  teeth  than  the  other  saws  used 
in  slojd  carpentry,  it  is  very  suitable  in  cases  where 
there  is  danger  of  splitting  the  wood.  The  tool  should 
be  worked  with  a  light  hand,  and  all  pressure  avoided. 

For  the  method  of  execution  see  No.  7,  bearing  in  mind  that 
the  frame  of  the  saw  must  be  inclined  to  the  one  side  or 
to  the  other,  according  to  the  curves  of  the  line  (c — d, 
Fig.  95). 


Greater  strength  is  required  for  this  than  for  the  preceding 
cuts,  as  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  blade  is  used. 


136 


g*o  2  Name  of  Exercise, 

a      v    i 

*     B 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


22 


23 


Scraping. 


To  finish  up  surfaces. 


Stop-planing 
(obstacle- 
planing). 


24  Perpendicular 

chiselling,  or 
paring. 

25  Oblique  chisel- 

ling, or  par- 
ing. 


Fig.  96. 

To  plane  a  piece    of  wood  which  presents 
obstacles  to  the  advance  of  the  plane. 


Fig.  97. 
To  cut  down  and  smooth  a  surface. 


To  pare  off  a  piece  of  wood  obliquely  to  the 
fibres,  but  in  the  direction  in  which  they 
run. 


137 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Scraper. 


Smoothing- 
plane. 


Firmer  chisel. 


Firmer  chisel. 


The  tool  is  worked,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibres ;  in  every  other  case  obliquely  to  them.  When 
the  scraper  is  efficiently  used,  other  means  of  finishing 
need  only  be  sparingly  employed. 


The  method  of  execution  is,  as  nearly  as  possible,  that  de- 
scribed under  No.  33,  with  this  exception,  that  the  tool 
is  passed  somewhat  obliquely  over  the  surface,  in  order 
to  smooth  it  as  near  the  obstacle  as  possible.  [There  is 
an  English  plane  specially  adapted  for  this  sort  of  work 
called  a  Stop  Champher  Plane. — TRS.] 


The  tool  is  grasped  firmly  by  the  handle  in  one  hand,  and 
worked  perpendicularly,  the  upper  arm  being  pressed 
firmly  against  the  side  to  give  the  necessary  support. 
The  other  hand  holds  the  work  on  a  cutting-board  on 
the  bench.  (See  Plate  VI.  for  position  of  worker.) 

The  piece  of  work  must  either  be  held  firmly  on  the  bench 
with  one  hand,  or,  when  it  seems  necessary,  fastened  be- 
tween the  bench-pegs.  The  tool  is  firmly  grasped  by 
the  other  hand,  and  its  face  pressed  against  the  wood 
(see  Fig.  89,  c — d).  Oblique  chiselling  is  always  done  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  fibres  run. 


138 


s   s 

1*1 

Name  of  Exercise. 

Purpose  of  Exercise. 

.;       x 

A      (a 

26 


Gouging  with        To  produce  depressions  of  various  degrees  of 
the  gouge  and  depth  in  a  piece  of  wood. 

the  spoon-iron. 


27     Concave  chisel-      To  produce  a  concave  surface. 
ling. 


28 


29 


30 


31 


Chopping. 


Smoothing  or 
dressing  up 
with  the  spoke- 
shave. 


To  split  up  and  dress  off  rough  and  uneven 
surfaces. 


To  dress  up  rounded  surfaces. 


Modelling  with 
the  spokeshave. 

Oblique  salving. 


Fig.  98. 
To  model  rounded  surfaces. 


To  saw  off  a  piece  of  wood  obliquely  to  the 
fibres. 


139 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Gouge  and 
spoon-iron. 

Firmer  chisel. 

Axe. 

Spokeshave. 


The  coarser  preliminary  work  is  done  with  the  gouge,  and 
the  necessary  pressure  is  given  by  mallet  blows  on  the 
handle.  The  spoon-iron  is  worked  with  both  hands,  and 
the  pressure  thus  given,  being  lateral,  serves  to  remove 
the  inequalities  left  by  the  gouge. 

The  handle  of  the  tool  is  firmly  grasped  in  one  hand,  and  the 
other  hand  rests  upon  the  face  of  the  blade  to  direct  its 
course,  which  must  always  be  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  fibres  run.  The  article  should  be  made  fast  in  the 
back  bench-vice.  (See  Fig.  95,  a — o.) 

One  hand  supports  the  piece  of  wood  on  the  chopping-block ; 
the  other  hand  wields  the  axe.  Should  the  wood  be 
"  contrary  "  it  must  be  turned  the  way  of  the  grain,  or 
"humoured."  For  the  position  of  the  worker,  see 
Plate  VII. 

The  work  is  fixed  in  the  bench-vice.  The  tool  is  firmly 
grasped  in  both  hands,  with  heavy  forward  pressure 
from  the  thumbs,  and  downward  pressure  from  the 
fingers.  When  necessary,  the  forward  direction  of  work- 
ing may  be  reversed.  For  the  position  of  the  worker  see 
Plate  VIII. 


Spokeshave.         I  For  method  of  execution  see  No.  29. 

»- 
I 

Broad  webbed     i  For  method  of  execution  see  No.  5,  and  Fig.  89,  c—d. 
bow-saw. 


HO 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


32 
33 


Oblique  planing,  j  To  smooth  surfaces  in  an  oblique  direction, 
over  the  fibres. 

Dressing  u-ith        To  produce  a  smooth  and  finished  surface. 
the  smoothing- 
plane ;  or 
smoothing  up. 


End  squaring.       To  smooth  up  the  surfaces  of   end  pieces 
across  the  fibres. 


35 


Halving  ivith 
knife. 


36 


Work  in  hard 
wood. 


To  fasten  two  pieces  of  wood  together  as 
shown  in  Ficr.  100. 


Fig.  100. 
To  manipulate  very  close-grained  hard  wood. 


141 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Smoothing- 
plaue. 

Smoothing- 
plane. 


Smoothing- 
plane. 

Knife. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  33. 


For  directions  for  fastening  the  work  into  the  bench  see 
No.  8.  The  plane  is  firmly  grasped  in  front  and  at  the 
back  (see  Fig.  99),  and  worked  briskly  over  the  surface 
of  the  work.  To  produce  a  fine  surface,  the  iron  must 
be  very  sharp  and  lie  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same 
plane  as  the  sole,  while  the  cover  must  lie  close  to  the 
edge  to  prevent  the  fibres  from  splitting,  whatever 
direction  the  plane  may  take.  (See  p.  1 00.) 


The  piece  of  wood  is  fastened  vertically  into  the  bench.  To 
avoid  splitting  at  the  corners,  the  work  should  proceed 
from  corners  to  centre. 

1.  The  work  is  set  out  with  square,  compass,  and  marking 

gauge. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  knife. 

3.  The  parts  are  fitted  together. 

This  exercise  requires  great  care  and  accuracy. 


As  a  general  rule  greater  strength  is  required  for  wood  of 
this  kind  than  for  softer  wood. 


142 


37  (a) 


1= 


37(6) 


38 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Fitting  in  pegs. 


Plugging. 


Bevelled  edge- 
planing. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


To  joint  two  pieces  of  wood  together  by 
means  of  a  dowel  or  pin  which  fits 
accurately  into  a  hole  bored  with  cen- 
tre-bit or  aufifer-bit. 


Fig.  101. 
To  fill  up  a  hole  by  means  of  a  round  plug. 


To  produce  a  plane  surface  at  oblique  angles 
to  two  other  plane  surfaces. 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Square ;  centre- 
bit  ;  knife. 


Centre-bit ; 
knife ;  firmer 
chisel. 

Trying-plane. 


1.  The  hole  is  drilled  with  the  centre-bit. 

2.  After  finding  the  centre  of  the  peg,  a  circle  is  described 

with  the  bit  to  be  used  in  order  to  get  the  size  of  the 
Peg- 

3.  The  dowel  or  pin  is  set  out  with  the  square  and  made 

cylindrical  with  the  knife,  so  that  it  may  fit  closely  and 
steadily  into  the  hole. 


The  centre-bit  used  for  the  hole  is  used  for  marking  out  the 
size  of  the  plug,  and  the  fitting  is  done  with  the  knife 
and  chisel. 

The  exercise  is  performed  according  to  the  directions  given 
in  No.  17,  with  this  exception,  that  the  work  is  laid  flat 
on  the  bench,  and  the  plane  is  held  obliquely  at  the 
angle  required. 


144 


»          S 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


39 
40 

41 


42 

43 

44 


Glueing. 

Boring  with 
bradaid. 

Sinking  and  fix- 
ing metal 
plates,  and 
other  metal 
fittings. 

Nailing. 
Punching. 

Bevelling  with 
the  draw- 
knife. 


To  fix  pieces  of  wood  together. 

To  produce  small  holes  in  a  piece  of  wood. 

To  fix  simple  metal  plates,  etc.  on  a  piece  of 
work. 


To  fasten  pieces  of  wood  together  with  nails. 

To  sink  a  nail-head  below  the  surface  of  the 
wood. 

To  produce  a  broad  bevel  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  fibres  run. 


45 


Perpendicular 
gouging. 


Fie.  103. 


To   produce   a  concave  excavation,  perpen- 
dicular to  a  plane  surface. 


145 


Tools  required. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


Bradawl. 

Screw-driver ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
bradawl. 


Hammer. 
Punch;  hammer. 


Draw-knife. 


Gouge  with 
edge  on  the 
convex  side. 


See  Chap.  IV.  pp.  121, 122. 

The  tool  is  worked  with  one  hand,  and  turned  steadily  back- 
wards and  forwards  under  even  pressure. 

1.  If  the  plate,  etc.  is  to  be  sunk,  the  firmer  chisel  is  used. 

2.  The  plate  is  screwed  on  with  the  screw  driver  care  being 

taken  that  the  screw  passes  right  down  into  the  wood. 


See  jointing,  Chapter  IV.,  pp.  123,  124. 

The  punch  is  held  steadily  on  the  head  of  the  nail  and  struck 
sharply  with  the  hammer ;  otherwise  it  may  slip  aside 
and  make  disfiguring  holes  in  the  work. 

The  article  is  screwed  into  the  bench,  and  the  tool,  held  firmly 
by  both  handles,  is  worked  steadily  over  the  wood.  The 
exercise  is  rendered  considerably  easier  if  the  draw-knife 
is  held  obliquely,  i.e.,  if  the  one  end  is  somewhat  in  ad- 
vance of  the  other.  If  contrary  wood  is  encountered,  the 
work  should,  if  possible,  be  turned  to  allow  the  knife  to 
cut  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres.  [The  face  of  the  tool 
should  be  held  towards  the  worker,  with  the  bevelled 
edge  on  the  work. — TRS.] 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  24. 


146 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


46 


Plain  jointing. 


To   plane   pieces   of  wood   intended   to   bo 
jointed  by  glueing. 


47 


48 
49 


Dove-tail  clamp- 
ing. 


Oblique  gouging. 
Champhering. 


To  insert  a  clamp  in  a  broad  piece  of  wood, 
to  prevent  warping. 


Fig.  104. 

To  pare  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  direction  of 
the  fibres,  but  obliquely  to  them. 

To  pare  a  piece  of  wood  at  an  obtuse  or  at 
an  acute  angle  to  its  surface. 


147 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Trying-plane. 


Compass ; 
square ; 
marking- 
point  ;  bevel ; 
marking- 
gauge;  knife; 
tenon-saw ; 
groove-saw ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
old  woman's 
tooth-plane ; 
jack-plane ; 
trying-plane. 

Gouge. 


Firmer  chisel. 


The  greatest  care  is  required  in  plain  jointing  in  order  that  the 
surfaces  which  are  to  be  united  may  fit  accurately.  The 
directions  given  in  No.  8  must  be  followed.  The  trying- 
plane  should  be  very  finely  set  for  this  exercise,  in  order 
that  it  may  remove  very  thin  shavings.  The  angle 
which  the  edge  makes  with  the  side  of  the  work  must 
be  frequently  tested  with  the  square  ;  the  straightness 
of  the  edge  must  also  be  tested  by  the  eye.  The  second 
piece  of  wood  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  when  it  is 
ready,  the  edge  of  the  first  piece  is  placed  upon  it  for 
trial.  If  the  joint  is  accurate,  the  two  surfaces  will 
touch  at  all  points,  and  when  placed  against  the  light 
will  not  allow  a  single  ray  to  pass  through.  If  any  light 
shines  through,  the  parts  which  are  too  high  must  be 
carefully  planed  down  with  long,  steady  strokes.  If  two 
or  more  planks  are  to  be  jointed  for  broad  work,  the  sur- 
faces must  lie  in  the  same  plane,  and  this  must  be  tested 
by  placing  against  them  the  straight-edge  or  the  blade 
of  the  square. 

1.  The  groove  for  the  clamp  is  set  out  with  the  compass, 

square,  marking-point,  bevel,  and  marking-gauge ;  and 
a  start  for  the  saw  is  made  with  the  knife. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  tenon-saw  or  groove-saw,  firmer 

chisel,  and  old  woman's  tooth-plane. 

3.  The  clamp  is  made  ready  with  the  jack-plane  and  the 

trying-plane,  care  being  taken  that  it  fits  accurately  all 
round. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  25,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  gouge  is  used  instead  of  the  firmer  chisel. 

For  method  of  execution  see  No.  25. 


148 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


50 
51 

52 
53 

54 

K   P* 

oo 
56 


57 


Circular  saw- 
ing. 

Screwing  to- 
gether, or  fix- 
ing with  screws 

Modelling  with 
the  draw-knife, 

Planing  across 
the  grain. 

Wedge  planing 
with  smooth- 
ing plane. 

Planing  with 
round-plane. 

Fixing  with 
wooden  pegs, 
for  planing 
thin  wood. 


To  saw  out  a  circular  shape. 

To  fasten  two  pieces  of  work  together  by 
means  of  screws. 

To  produce  a  rounded  surface  of  large  extent. 
To  plane  up  a  broad  surface  across  the  grain. 

To  plane  an  article  not  only  in  the  direction 
of  the  fibres,  but  obliquely  to  them  (or 
to  form  an  oblique  object). 

To  dress  up  broad  concave  surfaces. 

To  fix  down,  by  means  of  wooden  pegs,  a  thin 
piece  of  wood  on  the  surface  of  a  larger 
piece,  in  order  to  plane  the  former. 


Fig.  105. 


Single  dove-tail- 1  To  dove-tail  two  pieces  of  wood  together  by 


ing  at  right 
angles. 


means  of  one  dove- tail  pin. 


Fig.  106. 


149 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Turn-saw. 


Screwdriver ; 
pin-bit. 

Draw-knife. 
Trying-plane. 

Smoothing- 
plane. 

Round-plane. 


Pin-bit;  knife; 
hammer. 


Compass ; 
square; 
marking- 
point  ;  bevel ; 
cutting- 
gauge;  knife; 
tenon-saw ; 
groove-saw ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
old  woman's 
tooth-plane. 


The  piece  of  wood  is  fastened  into  the  back  bench-vice,  and 
the  saw  is  used  according  to  the  directions  given  in 
No.  15. 

For  method  of  execution  see  No.  41,  and  also  jointing,  Chap. 
IV.,  p.  124 

For  method  of  execution  see  No.  44. 
For  method  of  execution  see  No.  12. 
For  method  of  execution  see  No.  33. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  33.  To  produce  a  good 
result  the  plane  must  be  worked  very  smoothly  and 
steadily. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  under  piece  is  level.  The  wood 
to  be  planed  is  placed  on  it,  and  holes  are  drilled  with 
the  pin-bit,  close  to  each  end  of  the  upper  piece,  through 
to  the  under  piece.  Suitable  pins  are  then  driven  into 
these  holes,  and  a  stable  foundation  is  thus  provided  for 
the  work  of  the  plane. 


1.  The  groove  is  set  out  with  compass,  square,  marking  point, 

bevel  and  cutting-gauge,  and  a  start  for  the  saw  is  made 
with  the  knife. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  tenon-saw  or  groove-saw,  firmer 

chisel,  and  old  woman's  tooth-plane. 

3.  The  clamp  is  set  out  with  the  cutting-gauge,  and  cut  out 

with  the  knife. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  dove-tail  fits  accurately. 


150 


58 


59 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


Common  dove-     >  To  "corner-joint"  by  dove-tailing,  i.e.,  to  in- 


tailing. 


Square  shooting, 
or  planing 
with  shooting- 
board. 


sert  bevelled  pins   into  tightly  fitting- 
sockets. 


Fig.  107. 

To  plane  a  narrow  piece  of  wood  across  the 
grain  by  means  of  the  shooting-board. 


Fig.  108. 


151 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Cutting-gauge ; 
compass ; 
bevel ;  square ; 
dove-tail  saw ; 
marking- 
point  ;  firmer 
chisel. 


Trying-plane ; 
shooting- 
board. 


1.  The  thickness  of  the  wood  to  be  dove-tailed  is  marked  with 

the  cutting-gauge  across  the  ends  of  the  pieces  of  wood 
on  both  sides. 

2.  The  required  bevel  of  the  pins  is  indicated  with  compass, 

bevel,  and  square. 

3.  The  pins  are  cut  out  with  dove-tail  saw  and  firmer  chisel. 

4.  The  pin  end  is  held  steadily  on  the  other  piece  of  wood  at 

right  angles  to  it,  and  the  pins  are  marked  out  with  the 
marking  point.  Then  these  marks  are  squared  across 
the  end  of  the  wood. 

5.  They  are  cut  out  with  the  dove-tail  saw  and  the  firmer 

chisel. 

6.  The  parts  are  carefully  fitted  together. 


For  the  proper  setting  of  the  plane  see  No.  8.  Great  care 
is  necessary  when  the  shooting-board  is  in  use,  because 
the  worker  may  easily  hurt  himself.  See  p.  67. 


152 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


CO 


Cl 


62 


63 


64 


Hollowing  out ; 
or  scooping 
out  with  gouge 

Axle  fitting. 
[This  exercise 
only  applies 
to  one  Swedish 
model,  i.e.,  the 
shuttle. — TRS.] 

Housing,  or 
square  groov- 
ing. 


Long  oblique 
planing. 

Setting  out. 


To  produce  narrow  concave  depressions ;  or 
to  hollow  out  with  the  gouge. 


To  fit  an  axle  into  a  hole. 


To  divide  boxes,  etc.  into  two  or  more  rec- 
tangular portions  by  means  of  pieces  of 
wood. 


Fig.  109. 
To  plane  a  long  bevelled  edge. 

To  set  out  divisions  in  the  work. 


153 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Gouge. 


Compass ;  brad- 
awl ;  firmer 
chisel. 


Compass ; 
square ; 
marking- 
gauge  ;  saw ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
smoothlng- 
plane. 


Trying-plane. 

Compass ; 
marking- 
point;  square. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  26. 


1.  The  axle  is  set  out  with  the  compass. 

2.  The  hole  and  the  slot  are  made  with  the  bradawl  and 

chisel. 


1.  The  groove  is  set  out  by  means  of  the  compass,  square, 

and  marking-gauge. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  saw  and  the  firmer  chisel. 

3.  The  tenon,  i.e.,  the  piece  which  is  set  into  the  groove,  is 

made  to  fit  by  means  of  the  smoothing-plane. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  8. 


1.  The  length  is  divided  with  the  compass,  first  into  larger, 

and  then  into  smaller  parts. 

2.  The  lines  are  drawn  with  the  marking-point  at  right  angles 

to  the  edge  of  the  object.    Great  accuracy  is  required  in 
marking  off  the  divisions. 


154 


Number 
of 
Exercise. 

Name  of  Exercise. 

Purpose  of  Exercise. 

65 

Panel-grooving. 

To  produce  rectangular  depressions   in   an 
object,  into  which  a  flat  piece  of  wood  is 
to  be  slotted. 

;—                a             '-   *n  ,v 

'vpT_     .  _=--  =-~~                            ~~   -        ~n  •. 

Fig.  110. 

66 

Glueing  ivith 
aid  of  hand- 

To  glue  together  with  the  aid  of  the  hand- 
screw. 

screw. 

07 

Sawing  with 
compass  (or 
keyhole)  saw. 

To  saw  out  a  hole  in  a  piece  of  wood. 

68 

Oblique  edge- 
grooving. 

To  join  two  pieces  of  wood  together  by  means 
of  a  single  dove-tail,  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

Fig.  ill. 

155 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Cutting-gauge ; 
knife ;  firmer 
chisel;  plough. 


Handscrew. 


Centre-bit ; 
compass-saw. 


Compass : 

square;  mark- 
ing point ; 
Level:  cutting- 
gauge;  knife ; 
tenon-saw  or 
groove-saw ; 
firmer  chisel; 
old  woman's 
tooth-plane ; 
smoothing- 
plane. 


1.  The  groove  is  set  out  with  the  cutting-gauge. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  knife  and  the  firmer  chisel.    In  the 

case  of  many  objects  the  plough  may  be  employed  with 
advantage  to  cut  out  the  groove. 


Before  the  glue  is  applied  to  the  joint,  the  parts  must  fit 
accurately ;  otherwise  the  pressure  of  the  handscrew  will 
be  of  little  service.  A  piece  of  wood  should  be  laid 
between  the  work  and  the  screw  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
surface  of  the  article,  and  also  to  distribute  the  pressure 
more  equally. 


Two  holes  are  drilled  in  the  piece  of  work  with  the  centre- 
bit.  The  article  is  then  fastened  vertically  into  the 
bench  and  the  saw  is  worked  from  one  hole  to  the  other, 
following  lines  previously  set  out.  (In  the  case  of  small 
articles,  use  may  be  made  of  a  turn-saw,  the  blade  of 
which  is  detachable  at  one  end.) 


1.  The  groove  is  set  out  with  the  compass,  square,  marking- 

point,  bevel,  and  cutting-gauge ;  and  a  start  for  the  saw 
is  made  with  the  knife. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  tenon-saw  or  groove-saw,  firmer 

chisel,  and  old  woman's  tooth-plane. 

3.  The  required  form  of  the  end  of  the  dove-tail  is  set  out 

with  the  cutting-gauge  and  the  bevel,  and  it  is  bevelled 
with  the  smoothing-plane. 

4.  The  clamp  is  cut  out  with  the  knife. 

5.  The  parts  are  fitted  together. 


156 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


69 


Slotting. 


To  join  two  pieces  of  wood,  of  which  one  is 
thinner  than  the  other,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  former  slots  into  the  latter  at 
a  right  angle. 


70 


Dove-tailing  in 
thick  wood. 


71 


Mitreing. 


Fig.  112. 

To  make  a  rectangular  corner-joint  by  dove- 
tailing two  pieces  of  thick  wood. 


To  make  an  end-joint  with   two   pieces   of 
wood  at  an  angle  of  45°. 


72 


Common  mor- 
tise and  tenon 


Fig.  113. 
To  join  by  means  of  a  mortise  and  tenon. 


157 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Square;  mark- 
ing gauge ; 
tenon-saw  (or 
dove-tail  saw) 
firmer  chisel ; 
mallet. 


Cutting-gauge ; 
compass ; 
bevel;  square; 
dove-tail  saw ; 
marking- 
point;  firmer 
chisel. 

Square;  com- 
pass; firmer 
chisel ; 
smoothing- 
plane. 


Square;  mortise 
gauge ; 

mortise  chisel ; 
mallet ; 
tenon-saw. 


1.  The  tenon  (A  a}  and  (B  a),  and  the  slot  (B  b),  are  set 

out  with  the  square  and  the  marking  gauge. 

2.  The  slot  ( B  b)  is  cut  down  with  the  tenon  (or  dove-tail) 

saw,  and  cut  out  with  a  coarse  firmer  chisel,  (or  mortise- 
chisel)  by  aid  of  the  mallet. 

3.  The  tenon  (B  a)  is  made  with  the  tenon  (or  dove-tail) 

saw  and  the  firmer  chisel.  It  is  called  a  shoulder  tenon. 
The  tenon  (A  a)  is  simply  fitted  into  the  slot  with  the 
smoothing  plane.  It  is  called  an  unshouldered  tenon. 

4.  The  parts  are  fitted  together,  and  if  necessary  the  firmer 

chisel  is  used. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  58 ;  but  note  that  still 
greater  accuracy  is  required,  because  exercises  with  the 
saw  and  the  firmer  chisel  are  always  more  difficult  when 
the  thickness  of  the  wood  either  falls  under  a  certain 
limit,  or  exceeds  it  (Fig.  107). 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  25.  The  completion  of  the 
joint  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  object  in  which  the 
exercise  occurs.  It  may  require  mortising,  glueing, 
nailing,  screwing  together  with  wood  screws,  etc.  When 
the  object  is  large,  the  smoothing-plane  is  used  in 
mitreing.  [The  English  method  of  making  this  mitre  is 
by  means  of  a  mitre-box  and  shooting-board,  in  which 
case  the  saw  and  trying-plane  are  used. — TBS.] 

1.  The  mortise  is  set  out  by  means  of  the  square  and  the 

mortise  gauge. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  mortise-chisel  with  the  aid  of  the 

mallet. 

3.  The  tenon  is  cut  out  with  tenon-saw  and  firmer  chisel. 

4.  The  parts  are  fitted  together,  the  firmer  chisel  being 

employed  when  necessary. 


153 


•?      K 

f>     v. 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


73 


75 


Half -lapping. 


Rebating. 


Graving  with 
V-tool  or 
parting-tool 
(fluting). 


To  joint  together  two  pieces  of  wood  by  half- 
lapping  the  broad  sides  together,  i.e.,  by 
cutting  half  the  depth  of  the  wood  away 
from  each. 


Fig.  114. 


To  make  a  rebate. 


Fig.  115. 
To  hollow  out  depressions  or  edges. 


159 


Tools  required. 


Square ;  mark- 
ing point ; 
marking- 
gauge;  tenon- 
saw  ;  firmer 
chiseL 


Marking-gauge; 
knife ;  firmer 
chisel. 


Partinsr-tool. 


Directions  for  Work. 


1.  The  half-lapping  parts  are  set  out  with  the  square,  marking- 

point  and  marking-gauge. 

2.  They  are  cut  out  with  tenon-saw  and  firmer  chisel. 

3.  The  parts  are  fitted  together  with  the  aid  of  the  chisel. 


1.  The  breadth  and  thickness  of  the  rebate  are  set  out  with 

the  marking-gauge. 

2.  It  is  cut  out  with  the  knife  and  the  firmer  chisel.    [This 

holds  good  only  of  the  small  rebates  which  occur  in 
Slojd  carpentry.  The  plough  and  the  rebate  plane  are 
used  for  larger  work.— Tus.] 


The  object  is  screwed  tightly  into  the  bench,  and  the  part- 
ing-tool is  wielded  with  a  steady  hand. 


ICO 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


76 


Half-lap  dove- 
tailing. 


To  produce  a  rectangular  end  joint  by  dove- 
tailing together  two  pieces  of  wood,  so 
that  the  dove-tailing  does  not  show  on 
one  side.  To  do  this,  one-third  of  the 
wood  is  not  cut  through  on  the  side 
where  the  pins  are.  The  socket  piece  is 
cut  right  through  and  dove-tailed  in 
the  ordinary  way. 


Fig.  116. 


77 


78 


Hinge-sinking, 
or  fixing 
hinges. 


Lock-fitting. 


Fig.  117. 


161 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Cutting-gauge; 
compass; 
bevel ;  square ; 
tenon-saw 
(dove-tail 
saw) ;  mark- 
ing point ; 
firmer  chisel. 


Square ;  firmer 
chisel ;  brad- 
awl ;  screw- 
driver. 


Pin-bit ;   firmer 
chisel ;  knife ; 
bradawl ; 
screwdriver ; 
compass-saw. 


For  method  of  execution  see  No.  58,  paying  special  attention 
to  setting  the  piece  on  which  the  pins  are  in  an  oblique 
position  in  the  back  bench-vice.  The  pins  are  sawn  out 
to  the  lines  indicated  by  the  marking  point,  which  deter- 
mine the  thickness  of  the  wood  to  be  left.  The  spaces  be- 
tween are  smoothed  by  perpendicular  paring  with  the 
firmer  chisel.  (See  No.  24.) 


1.  The  position  of  the  hinge  is  decided  on  and  set  out. 

2.  The  depth  to  which  the  hinge  has  to  be  sunk  is  taken  and 

gauged. 

3.  This  part  is  then  cut  out  with  the  firmer  chisel. 

4.  For  screwing  on,  see  No.  41. 


1.  The  position  of  the  lock  is  decided  on. 

2.  The  place  is  cut  out  with  the  phi-bit  and  the  firmer  chisel 

to  a  depth  which  permits  the  metal  plate  to  lie  on  the 
same  plane  as  the  wood. 

3.  The  hole  for  the  key  is  cut  out  with  the  centre-bit,  knife 

and  chisel.    (In  larger  work  with  the  compass-saw). 

4.  For  screwing  on,  see  No.  41.  L 


162 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


79 


I 

Oblique  dove- 
tailing. 


80 


Oblique  slotting 


To  make  a  rectangular  end -joint  with  ob- 
lique pieces  of  wood. 


To  make  an  oblique  angled  joint  with  a  pin 
and  a  slot. 


Fig.  119. 


163 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Bevel ;  dove- 
tail saw ;  com- 
pass ;  square ; 
tenon  saw ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
smoothing- 
plane. 


Compass ; 
square  ; 
bevel ; 
marking- 
gauge;  knife; 
firmer  chisel ; 
dove-tail  saw. 


1.  Set  out  the  angle  at  the  ends  with  the  bevel  and  saw  off. 

2.  Bevel  off  the  edges  to  correspond  with  the  angle  at  the 

ends  of  the  adjacent  sides. 

3.  To  get  the  angle  in  the  horizontal  plane  at  the  ends,  use 

the  square  in  the  following  way  :  Place  the  face  against 
the  side  of  the  wood,  and  let  the  blade  rest  flat  on  the 
plane  of  the  bevelled  edge.  Then  draw  the  line  and 
plane  off. 

4.  The  required  thickness  of  each  piece  is  set  out  with  the 

cutting  gauge. 

5.  The  pins  are  set  out  at  right  angles  to  the  oblique  end 

with  the  compass,  bevel,  and  square. 

6.  They  are  made  with  the  dove-tail  saw  and  the  firmer 

chisel. 

[Another  method  of  working  this  joint  is  by  means  of  a 
prepared  shooting  board,  by  which  the  two  angles  at  the 
ends  can  be  obtained  at  once. 

It  may  also  be  mentioned,  that  in  the  English  method  of 
oblique  dove-tailing,  the  dove-tail  pins  run  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  gram,  or  obliquely  to  it,  and  are  consequently 
stronger:  There  are  theoretical  reasons  why  this  method  is 
not  followed  at  Naas.— TRS.] 


1.  The  slot  is  set  out  with  compass,  square,  and  bevel. 

2.  The  depth  of  the  groove  is  set  out  with  the  marking- 

gauge,  and  cut  out  with  the  knife  and  firmer  chisel. 

3.  The  slot  is  sawn  out  with  the  dove-tail  saw,  and  cut  out 

with  the  firmer  chisel. 

4.  The  parts  are  fitted  together  with  the  aid  of  the  firmer 

chiseL 


164 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


81 


Notched  dove- 
tailing (half 
concealed  edge 
grooving). 


To  insert  a  dove-tail,  the  outer  edge  of  which 
conceals  the  groove,  into  a  piece  of  wood. 


Concave  model- 
ling with 
plane  (hollow- 
ing with 
plane). 

Staving. 


Fig.  120. 
To  produce  a  concave  surface  with  the  plane. 


To  fix  concave-shaped  pieces  of  wood  or 
staves  to  a  curvilinear  bottom  piece,  to 
make  a  barrel  or  bucket. 


Fig.  121. 


165 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Compass ; 
square;  mark- 
ing point ; 
bevel;  cut- 
ting gauge ; 
knife ;  tenon- 
saw  or  groove- 
saw  ;  firmer 
chisel;  old 
woman's 
tooth  plane ; 
dove-tail  saw. 


Round  plane. 


Compass;  bow- 
saw ;  spoke- 
shave  ;  bevel ; 
markingr 
point;  mark- 
ing gauge ; 
knife ;  firmer 
chisel;  trying- 
plane  ; 
smoothing- 
plane;  brad- 
awl. 


1.  The  groove  is  set  out  with  compass,  square,  marking- 

point,  bevel,  and  cutting  gauge;  cut  out  with  knife, 
tenon-saw  or  groove-saw,  firmer  chisel,  and  old  woman's 
tooth-plane 

2.  The  shape  of  the  dove-tail  is  set  out  with  square  and 

cutting  gauge,  and  cut  out  with  dove-tail  saw  and 
knife. 

3.  The  parts  are  fitted  together  with  the  aid  of  the  knife. 


1.  The  required  curve  is  set  out  at  both  ends. 

2.  The  shape  is  produced  by  means  of  the  roughing  plane 

and  the  "round "  plane.    (See  Fig.  121.) 


1.  The  bottom  is  made  in  the  shape  required. 

2.  The  edge  of  the  bottom  is  bevelled  to  the  angle  required 

for  the  sides  of  the  article. 

3.  The  position  and  breadth  of  the  groove  are  set  out  with 

the  marking-point. 

4.  The  necessary  inclination  of  the  sides  of  the  staves  is 

determined  by  the  bevel. 

5.  The  depth  of  the  groove  is  set  out  with  the  marking-gauge 

and  cut  out  with  the  knife  and  the  firmer  chisel. 

6.  The  edges  of  the  staves  are  planed  and  fitted  together. 

7.  The  staves  are  held  together  by  means  of  wooden  phis 

inserted  into  the  edges  from  the  inside. 


166 


mb 
of 
rcis 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


84 


Hooping. 


To  fix  iron  hoops  round  a  barrel  or  bucket, 
to  hold  the  staves  together.  (The  wooden 
hoops  frequently  seen  are  not  suitable  for 
slojd  work.) 


85 


Concealed  tenon-]  To  joint  two  pieces  of   wood  together   at 


ng. 


right  angles  by  means  of  a  concealed  or 
haunched  tenon. 


Fig.  122  a. 


Fig.  122  b. 


167 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Cold  chisel ; 
punch ;  ham- 
mer; set 
hammer. 


1.  The  length  of  the  hoop  is  taken  and  cut  off  with  the  cold 

chisel. 

2.  A  hole  is  made  with  the  punch  and  hammer  about  half  an 

inch  from  each  end. 

3.  The  hoop  is  rivetted  by  means  of  a  rivet,  the  head  of 

which  is  larger  than  the  hole. 

4.  The  head  of  the  rivet  is  then  made  to  rest  on  a  block  of 

metal,  and  the  rivet  itself  is  hammered  until  a  head  is 
formed  on  thelother  side. 

5.  The  hoop  is  hammered  from  the  inside  of  the  article  as  it 

rests  on  the  block,  and  thus  made  to  fit. 

6.  The  hoops  are  put  on  from  the  narrowest  portion  of  the 

article,  and  driven  home  by  blows  from  the  set  hammer. 


Square;  mortise 
gauge;  firmer 
chisel ;  mor- 
tise chisel ; 
mallet;,  bow- 
saw; tenon- 
saw. 


1.  The  tenon  and  the  mortise  are  set  out  at  right  angles. 

2.  The  breadth  of  the  mortise  and  the  thickness  of  the  tenon 

are  set  out  with  the  mortise  gauge. 

3.  The  mortise  is  cut  out  with  the  mortise  chisel. 

4.  The  tenon  is  made  with  the  bow-saw,  firmer  chisel,  and 

tenon-saw. 

5.  The  parts  are  fitted  together  with  the  help  of  the  firmer 

chisel. 


168 


Name  of  Exercise. 


Purpose  of  Exercise. 


86 


87 


Blocking. 


Mortised  block- 
ing. 


Up  and  down, 
sauring. 


To  strengthen  by  means  of  blocks. 

N.B. — In  the  illustration  the  fibres  of  the 
block  are  accidentally  shown  running  in  the 
wrong  direction. 


Fig.  123. 

To  strengthen  by  means  of  mortised  blocks. 
[Sometimes  called  "  button  blocks." — TES.] 


Fig.  124. 

To  divide  a  long  piece  of  wood  into  small 
pieces. 


169 


Tools  required. 


Directions  for  Work. 


Dove-tail  saw  ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
square. 


Square;  mark- 
ing gauge ; 
firmer  chisel ; 
dove-tail  saw. 


Broad-webbed 
bow-saw. 


1.  The  piece  to  be  strengthened  is  held  close  to  the  other 

piece  with  the  handscrew. 

2.  The  blocks  are  made  with  the  dove-tail  saw  and  the  chisel. 

3.  The  blocks  are  warmed,  glued,  and  put  into  their  places. 

4.  Before  the  handscrew  is  taken  away,  the  glue  must  be 

quite  dry. 


1.  The  mortise  in  the  rail  is  set  out  at  right  angles  with  the 

square  and  the  marking-gauge,  and  cut  out  with  the 
firmer  chisel. 

2.  The  tenon  on  the  block  is  set  out  in  accordance  with  the 

size  of  the  mortise  with  the  square  and  the  marking  gauge ; 
cut  out  with  the  dove-tail  saw,  and  fitted  with  the  firmer 
chiseL 

3.  Previous  to  the  blocking,  the  object  to  be  fixed  is  held  in 

position  with  the^handscrew. 

4.  The  blocks  are  wanned  and  glued  on  the  two  sides  next 

the  object,  and  put  in  their  places. 


The  plank  is  placed  on  the  bench  and  held  in  place  by  a  hand- 
screw.  The  blade  of  the  saw  is  set  almost  at  right  angles 
to  the  plane  of  the  frame,  and  the  handle  is  grasped  by 
one  hand,  while  the  other  holds  the  upper  end  of  the 
side  arm,  and  the  saw  is  worked  vertically  with  long  easy 
strokes,  with  the  blade  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
surface  of  the  plank. 


171 


Plate  I.    Position  :  Convex  Cut. 


173 


Plate  II.    Position:  Long-sawing. 


175 


Plate  III.    Position :  Edge-planing. 


177 


Plate  IV.  Position :  Perpendicular  boring  with  the  brace. 


179 


Plate  V.    Position :   Horizontal  boring  with  the  brace. 


181 


Plate  VI.    Position  :  Perpendicular  chiselling. 


183 


Plate  VII.    Position:    Chopping 


185 


Plate  VIII.    Position:  Smoothing,  &c.,  with  the  spokeshave. 


187 


Plate  IX.    Plan  of  SISjd-room  in  Katarina  Elementary  School,  Stockholm. 


A.  Slojd  room. 

1.  Benches. 

2.  Cupboard  with  two  divisions  : 

(1)  for  tools  ;  (2)  for  models. 

3.  Cupboard  with  two  divisions  : 

(1)  for  unfinished  work. 

(2)  for  finished  articles. 

4.  Teacher's  desk. 

5.  Cupboard : 

a.  Iron  vice. 

b.  Iron  saw  file  vice. 

c.  Anvil. 

6.  Lathe. 

7.  Racks  for  hand-screws  and 

shooting-boards. 


8.  Vices  for  rough  work. 

9.  Boring-stools. 

10.  Saw-bench. 

11.  Glue-pot. 

12.  Chopping-block. 

13.  Flat  grindstone. 

14.  Revolving  grindstone. 

15.  Wood-racks. 

16.  Wash-hand  basins. 

17.  Stoves. 

3  racks  for  saws  are  introduced 
between  the  windows  on  the 
long  wall. 
B.  Lobby. 


189 


Plate  X. 


A.  Marking  gauge  (Johansson's)  with  stock  adjusted  by  wedges.    \. 

B.  Marking  gauge  (landmark's  modified)  with  stock  adjusted  by  thumb-screw. 
D.  Plough-gauge,  a  and  b,  different  methods  of  adjustment,    i. 


192 


9 


a 


Lr 

to  I  * 


?  V  S  6  7 


Plate  XI.    Tool  Cup 


193 


Section 


EH 


EU 

E 


cr 


Plan  of 


n  t        side  elevation 
through  a-b.  of  door 


196 


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Lists  of  Tools  required  for  different  numbers  of  Pupils. 


A.    List  of  Tools  required  for  one  pupil. 


1  Shooting-board. 

1  Hand-saw. 

1  Half-round  file. 

2  Handscrews. 

1  Tenon-saw. 

1  Round  file. 

1  Metre-measure  or 

1  Compass-saw. 

1  Scraper. 

Rule. 

1  Groove-saw. 

1  Brace,  with  set  of 

1  Marking-point. 

1  Axe. 

bits. 

1  Marking-gauge. 

1  Knife. 

1  Bradawl. 

1  Cutting-gauge. 

1  Draw-knife. 

1  Mallet. 

1  pair  of  Compasses. 

4  set  (6)  Firmer- 

1  Hammer. 

1  Square. 

Chisels. 

1  pair  of  Pincers. 

1  Bevel. 

2  Mortise  Chisels. 

1  Wire-cutter. 

1  Saw-set. 

i  set  (6)  Gouges. 

1  pair  flat-jawed  Pliers. 

1  Saw-sharpening 

1  Spoon-iron. 

1  pair  round-jawed 

clamps. 

1  Jack-plane. 

Pliers. 

1  Triangular  file. 

1  Trying-plane. 

1  Screwdriver. 

1  Bow-saw. 

1  Smoothing-plane. 

1  Glue-pot  and  Brush. 

1  Dove-tail  saw. 

1  Compass-plane. 

1  Grindstone. 

1  Turn-saw  (broad- 

1  Old  woman's  tooth- 

1  Oilstone. 

webbed). 

plane. 

1  Oil-can. 

1  Turn-saw  (narrower 

1  Spokeshave. 

Sandpaper. 

webbed). 

1  Flat  file. 

B.    Minimum  number   of  Tools   required   for  the   simul- 
taneous instruction  of  6  to  8  pupils. 


1  Shooting-board. 

2  Handscrews. 

6  to  8  Metre-measures 
or  Rules. 


2  Marking-points. 

3  to  4  Marking-gauges.* 
3  pair  Compasses. 

3  to  4  Squares.* 


Bevel. 

Saw-set. 
Saw-sharpening 
clamps. 


[*  With  regard  to  the  minimum  number  of  tools  required,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Chapter  I.,  p.  24,  and  is  strongly  recommended  to  provide 
each  child,  if  possible,  with  a  complete  bench,  set,  viz  : — knife,  jack-plane, 
trying-plane,  smoothing-plaue,  square,  marking-gauge,  compass,  rule  or 
metre-measure,  and  scraper. — TRS.] 


202 


HANDBOOK    OP    SLOJD. 


2  Triangular  files. 
2  Bow-saws. 
1  Dove-tail  saw. 

1  Turn -saw  (broad- 

webbed). 

2  Turn-saws  (narrower 

webbed). 
1  Hand-saw. 
1  Tenon-saw. 
1  Compass-saw. 
1  Groove-saw. 
1  Axe. 

6  to  8  Knives. 
1  Draw-knife. 
1  set  (12)  Firmer 

Chisels. 


|  set  (4)  Mortise 
Chisels. 

£  set  (6)  Gouges. 

3  Spoon-irons. 
I  2  Jack-planes.* 
I  3  Trying-planes.* 
I  3  Smoothing-planes.* 

1  Compass-plane. 
i  1  Old  woman's  tooth - 
plane. 

•2  Spokeshaves. 

1  Flat  file. 

2  Half-round  files. 
1  Round  file. 

3  Scrapers.* 


1  Brace,  with  set  of 
bits. 

1  Bradawl. 
3  Mallets. 

2  Hammers.* 

1  pair  Pincers. 
1  Wire-cutter. 
1  pair  flat  Pliers. 

1  pair  round  Pliers. 

2  Screwdrivers. 

1  Glue-pot  and  Brush. 

1  Grindstone. 

2  Oilstones. 
1  Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 


C.    Minimum  number  of  Tools  required  for  the  simul- 
taneous instruction  of  12  pupils. 


2  Shooting-boards. 

3  Handscrews. 

12  Metre-measures  or 
Rules. 

4  Marking-points. 

8  Marking-gauges.* 
2  Cutting-gauges. 
6  pair  of  Compasses. 
8  Squares.* 
2  Bevels. 
2  Saw-sets. 

2  Saw-sharpening 

clamps. 
4  Triangular  files. 

3  Bow-saws. 

2  Dove-tail  saws. 
2  Turn-saws  (broad - 

webbed). 
2  Turn-saws  (narrower 

webbed). 


1  Hand-saw. 
1  Tenon-saw. 
1  Compass-saw. 
1  Groove-saw. 
1  Axe. 
12  Knives. 
1  Draw-knife. 
1  set  (12)  Firmer 

Chisels. 
-3  set  (4)  Mortise 

Chisels. 
\  set  (6)  Gouges. 

3  Spoon-irons. 

4  Jack-planes.* 

8  Trying-planes.* 
8  Smoothing-planes.* 
1  Compass-plane. 
4  Spokeshaves. 
1  Flat  file. 
3  Half-round  files. 


2  Round  files. 
6  Scrapers.* 

1  Brace,  with  set  of 

bits. 

2  Bradawls. 
4  Mallets. 

3  Hammers.* 

1  pair  of  Pincers. 
1  Wire-cutter. 
1  pair  flat  Pliers. 
1  pair  round  Pliers. 
6  Screwdrivers. 
1  Glue-pot  with  Brush. 

1  Grindstone. 

2  Oilstones. 
1  Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 


*  See  note,  page  201. 


LIST    OF    TOOLS. 


203 


D.    Complete  list  of  Tools  required  for  the  simultaneous 
instruction  of  12  pupils. 


3  Shooting-boards. 

4  Handscrews. 

12  Metre-measures. 
8  Marking-points. 
12  Marking-gauges.     - 
2  Cutting-gauges. 
6  pair  of  Compasses. 
12  Squares. 
2  Bevels. 
2  Saw-sets. 

2  Saw-sharpening 

clamps. 

4  Triangular  files. 
4  Bow-saws. 

3  Dove-tail  saws. 

4  Turn-saws  (broad- 

webbed). 
4  Turn-saws 

(narrower  webbed). 


3  Hand-saws  (tenon- 
saws). 

1  Groove-saw. 

2  Axes. 

12  Knives. 

2  Draw-knives. 

2  sets  (24)  Firmer 
Chisels. 

1  set  (8)  Mortise 
Chisels. 

1  set  (12)  Gouges. 

6  Spoon-irons. 

12  Jack-planes. 

12  Trying-planes. 

12  Smoothing-planes. 

1  Compass-plane. 

1  Old  woman's  tooth- 
plane. 

6  Spokeshaves. 


4  Flat  files. 
6  Half-round  files. 
4  Round  files. 
6  Scrapers. 

1  Brace  with  set  of 

bits. 

3  Bradawls. 
8  Mallets. 
12  Hammers. 

2  pair  of  Pincers. 
1  Wire-cutter. 

1  pair  flat  Pliers. 
1  pair  round  Pliers. 
6  Screwdrivers. 
1  Glue-pot  with  Brush. 
1  Grindstone. 

3  Oilstones. 
1  Oil-can. 

Sandpaper. 


204  HANDBOOK    OF    SLOJD. 

The  cost  of  providing  the  above  tools,  calculated  according  to  the 
prices*  now  current  (in  Sweden),  is  as  follows  :— 

List  (A)  about  50  Kronor.t 

„     CB)      „  85        „ 

„     (CT)       »  135         „ 

„     (D)      „  205        „ 

The  number  of  benches  required  is  as  follows  : — 

For  List  (A)    1 
„       „     (B)    3  or  4 

„       „     (C)     8 
„       „     (D}  12 

If  double  benches  are  used,  only  half  the  number  will  be  required  in 
the  cases  of  (B),  (CJ,  and  (D)  respectively.  As  double  benches  are 
cheaper  in  proportion  to  single  benches,  they  may  in  some  cases  be 
preferred  to  single  ones. 

Tools  of  the  best  quality  should  always  be  procured ;  they  are  the 
cheapest  in  the  long-run. 

It  is  also  desirable  that  drawings  and  constructions  of  the  models 
should  be  procured. 

In  connection  with  this,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  annual  cost  of 
timber  and  other  materials  in  a  small  country  school  in  Sweden,  where 
10  to  15  children  receive  instruction,  is  from  10  to  20  kroner,  exclusive  of 
the  outlay  of  replacing  worn-out  tools. 

The  same  materials  for  a  class  of  16  boys  in  England  would  cost  about 
£l  10s.  annually.  Red  deal  pine  is  the  best  solt-wood  for  Slojd,  and  can 
be  obtained  at  any  good  timber  yard.  Lime-tree,  sycamore,  and  chestnut 
all  make  good  substitutes  for  birch.  The  two  former  are  very  fine  in  the 
grain,  and  are  good  for  scoops,  bowls,  etc.  They  are  a  little  dearer  than 
birch.  American  canary  wood  can  also  be  recommended  as  a  wood 
suitable  for  flat  articles  ;  it  is  a  little  harder  than  deal,  and  works  easily. 
This  wood  can  be  obtained  anywhere,  and  is  not  dear. 

*  The  English  prices  for  the  tools  are  given  on  page  214. 

t  The  Swedish  krona  is  worth  Is.  IJd.     Eighteen  kronor  =  £1. 


INDEX. 


Absolute  weight  of  timber,  51. 

Accuracy,  habits  of,  2,  14,  15. 

Adjustable  bench,  65. 
„          bit,  112. 
„          handscrew,  69. 
„          planes,  102. 

Age  of  the  Slojd-pupil,  17. 
„   of  trees,  30. 

Aim  of  Slojd,  2. 

Air-tubes,  31,  32. 

Albuminoids  in  sap,  34. 

Alburnum,  32. 

Alder,  the,  32,  35,  38,  39,  46,  48,  50, 
52,  53 ;  the  hoary-leaved,  53. 

American  Canary  wood,  204. 

Angle  formed  by  the  bevelled  edge 
and  front  face  of  the  plane-iron, 
95 ;  by  the  bevelled  edges  of  the 
axe,  88 ;  by  the  face  and  front 
side  of  chisels,  90,  91 ;  by  the 
faces  of  the  Slojd-knife,  88. 

Annual  layers,  concentric,  29-31. 

Apple,  the,  38,  47,  50,  56. 

Area  of  Slojd-room,  20. 

Articles  of  luxury,  12. 

Articles,  modelled,  12. 
„        rectangular,  12. 
„        rejected,  15. 
„        sale  of,  26. 

Artificial  light  in  Slojd-room,  21. 

Artisan,  work  of  the,  1. 

Ash,  the,  31,  32,  35,  38,  39,  46-48,  53. 

Aspen,  the,  35,  46,  48,  50,  54. 

Attachments  of  saw-blade,  82-84. 

Attention,  habits  of,  2. 

Auger-bit,  the,  110. 

Autumn  wood,  30-32. 

Axe,  the,  7,  22,  47,  59,  60,  87,  88. 

Axle-fitting,  152. 


B 

Back  bench-vice,  the,  62,  63,  65,  66. 

Bark,  28. 

Bast,  28. 

Beam-compasses,  73,  74 

Beech,  the,  33-35,  38,  39,  42,  44, 46- 

48,  50-52,  55,  198. 
Bench,  the,  62-67,  204. 

„      adjustable,  65. 

„      double,  65. 

„      Naas  pattern,  64,  65. 

„      single,  62-64. 

„      Trainor's,  66,  67. 
Bench-drawer,  the,  62,  64. 
Bench-pegs,  62,  63,  66. 
Bench-rails,  62,  64,  66. 
Bench-top,  62,  64-66. 
Bench-well,  62,  64,  66. 
Bench-set,  the,  24,  201. 
Benches  required,  number  of,  204. 
Bench-vice,  back,  62,  63,  65,  66. 

„         front,  62,  63,  66. 
Bevel  cut,  126. 
Bevel,  mitre,  76. 

„      set,  76. 

„      wooden,  76. 
Bevelled  edge-planing,  142. 
Bevelling,  134. 

„       with  draw-knife,  144. 
Birch,'the,  32,  38,  39,  42,  44,  46-48, 

50-52,  54,  196-198. 
Birch,  figured,  46. 
Bits,  108-112. 
Blade  of  a  saw,  77, 80. 
Blocking,  168. 

„       mortised,  168. 
Blocks,  for  table  tops,  43. 
"  Blue  surface,"  40,  43,  44. 
Bodily  labour,  2,  8. 


206 


INDEX. 


Body,  position  of,  during  work,  21-24, 
127,  129,  133,  137,  139. 
Plates  L— VIII. 
Bolts,  62,  65. 

Boring,  with  bradawl,  144. 
„      with  centre-bit,  132. 
„      with  pin-bit,  132. 
„      with  shell-bit,  132. 
Boss  of  a  plane,  96,  98. 
Bow-compasses,  73. 
Bow-saw,  the,  83. 

.,        broad-webbed,  83,  85. 
Brace,  the,  108,  109. 
„      American,  109. 
„      Swedish,  109. 
Bradawl,  the,  112. 

„         boring  with,  144. 
Broad-leaved  trees,  30,  31,  33,  52. 
Brushes  for  glue,  120. 


Caliper-compasses,  74. 

Cambium,  28. 

Camphor,  solution  of,  45. 

Camphor-tree,  49. 

Canary  wood,  American,  204. 

"  Captain  "  of  Slojd-class,  25. 

Carpentry,  7,  8. 

Slojd,  6,  7,  21. 
Carving-tools,  89,  92,  93. 
Carving  wood,  8. 
Cedar,  the,  49. 
Cells,  wood,  28. 
Cellulose,  29. 
Centre-bit,  the,  22,  110,  111.     . 

„     boring  with,  132. 

„      sharpening  the,  111. 
Champhering,  146. 
Changes  which  wood  undergoes,  35. 
Chestnut,  the,  52,  55,  204. 
Chisel,  the,  7,  89-91. 

„     bent,  93. 

„     firmer,  90. 

,,     mortise,  91. 
Chiselling,  concave,  138. 


Chiselling,  oblique,  136. 

„         perpendicular,  136, 
Chopping,  138.     Plate  VII. 
Chopping-block,  88. 
Circular  sawing,  148. 
Clamping,  dove-tail,  146. 
Clamps,  43. 

„      saw-sharpening,  79. 
Class-teaching,  16,  17. 
Cleavage  of  wood,  34. 
Colour  of  wood,  48,  49. 
Colouring  matter,  34. 
Common  dove-tailing,  150. 

„        mortise  and  tenon,  156. 
Compasses,  24,  73,  74. 
„         beam,  73,  74. 
„         bow,  73. 
„         caliper,  74. 
Compass-plane,  the,  102. 

„        saw,  80,  8(5. 
Concave  chiselling,  138. 

„       cut,  134. 

„       modelling  with  the  plane,  164. 
Concealed  tenoning,  166. 
Concentric  annual  layers,  29-31. 
Constituents  of  sap,  34,  35. 
Constructions,  geometrical,  13,  204. 
Convex  cut,  128. 

„      modelling  with  plane,  134. 

„  sawing,  134. 
Corky  layer,  the,  28. 
Cost  of  providing  tools,  204. 

„  „          timber,  &c.,  204. 

Counter-sink  drill,  the,  110,  112. 
Cover  of  the  plane,  95,  96. 
Cracking  of  timber,  36,  39,  40-43. 
Cramp,  thumb-screw,  70. 
Cross-cut,  the,  126. 
"  Cross-grained  "  wood,  46. 
Cross-section  of  stem,  27,  28. 
Cut,  bevel,  126. 
„    concave,  134. 
„    convex,  128. 
„    cross,  126. 
„    long,  126. 


INDEX. 


207 


Cut,  oblique,  126. 

„    plane  surface,  134. 
Cutting-gauge,  the,  73. 


Day-book,  teacher's,  26. 
Deal,  red,  204. 
Decay  of  timber,  43. 
Dexterity,  technical,  3-5. 
Dove-tail  clamping,  146. 
„       filletster,  103. 
„       saw,  86. 
Dove-tailing,  15,  73,  125. 

„          common,  150. 

„          half-lap,  160. 

,,          in  thick  wood,  156. 

„          notched,  164. 

.,          oblique,  162. 

, ,         single,  at  right  angles,  148. 
Dowels,  124. 
Drawings,  13,  204. 
Drawings  in  perspective,  13. 
Draw- knife,  the,  7,  89. 

„          bevelling  with,  144. 

.,          modelling  with,  148. 
Dressing  up    with    the    smoothing- 
plane,   140 ;    with   spokeshave, 
138. 

"  Dry-rot,"  44. 
Durability  of  timber,  45,  51. 
Duramen,  32. 


Ebony,  32,  47,  50,  57. 
Edge-grooving,  half  concealed,  164 ; 

oblique,  154. 
Edge-planing,  128. 

„  bevelled,  142. 

Edges,  straight,  76,  77. 
Educational  and  practical  Slojd,  1. 
Educational  Slojd,  aim  of,  1,  2. 
Elasticity  of  timber,  48. 
Elder,  the,  33. 
Elm,  the,  31,  32,  35,  38,  39,  44,  46-48, 

50,  51,  53. 
End-squaring,  140. 


English  handscrew,  69. 

„       marking-gauge,  72. 
Exercises,  the,  6,  10,  11,  60,  126-169, 

196,  199. 

Expansion- bit,  the,  111,  112. 
Eye  of  the  axehead,  88. 


Face  of  chisel,  90. 
Face-planing,  77,  132. 
Fermentation  of  sap,  43. 
Fibres  of  wood,  29. 
File,  the,  22,  80,  105,  106. 

„    to  clean,  106. 

„    to  use,  106. 

„  triangular,  80. 
File-grade,  the,  105. 
Filing,  132. 

Filletster,  the  dove-tail,  103. 
"  Finer  "  kinds  of  manual  work,  8. 
Fir,  the,  31,  32,  34,  35,  38,  39,  46,  48, 

50,  51,  52,  196. 
Firmer,  the,  93. 

„       the  corner,  93. 
Firmer-chisel,  the,  90. 
Fitting  in  pegs,  142. 
Fixing  hinges,  160. 
Fixing  with  wooden  pegs,  148. 
Fixing  with  screws,  148. 
Fluting,  158. 
Frame-saw,  the,  78,  82. 
Fungi,  44. 


Gauge,  cutting,  73. 

„       marking,  24,  71,  72. 
Gauging,  130. 

Geometrical  constructions,  13. 
Glue,  21,  119-123. 

„    liquid,  120. 
Glue-brushes,  120. 

„    pot,  120. 
Glueing,  121-123,  144. 

„        with  aid  of  hand- screw,  154. 
Gouge,  the,  89,  91. 

scooping  out  with,  152. 


208 


INDEX. 


Gouge,  curved,  93. 

„      front  bent,  93. 

„      parting,  93. 

„      spoon,  92. 

„      straight,  93. 
Gouging,  oblique,  146. 

„        perpendicular,  144. 
Gouging  with  gouge  and  spoon-iron, 

133. 
Grain,  against  the,  49. 

„      endway  of  the,  49. 

„      lengthway  of  the,  49. 

„      with  the,  49. 

„      the  silver,  33. 
Graving  with  V  tool  or  par  ting-  tool, 

158. 

Grinding  tools,  88,  115. 
Grinding-support,  116. 
Grindstone,  the,  115,  116. 
Groove-jointing,  125. 
Groove-saw,  86,  87. 
Grooving,  73,  87. 
Gymnastics,  18,  21,  22. 

H 

Habits  of  accuracy,  2,  14, 15. 
„        attention,  2. 
„        industry,  2. 
„        order,  2. 
„        self-reliance,  2,  14. 
Half-concealed  edge-grooving,  164. 
Half-lap  dove-tailing,  160. 
Half-lapping,  158. 
Halving,  125. 

„      with  knife,  140. 
Hammer,  the,  113. 

„       the  set,  167. 
Hand,  use  of  the  right  and  left,  22. 
Handle  of  a  saw,  83. 
Hand-saw,  the,  85. 
Handscrew,  the,  68,  69. 
„          adjustable,  69. 
„          English,  69. 
„          iron,  70. 
„         wooden,  68. 


Handscrew,  glueing  with,  154. 
Hardness  of  timber,  46-48. 
Harmonious    physical    development, 

21,  22. 

Hazel,  the,  48. 
Heart-wood,  the,  32,  47. 
Height  of  Slojd-room,  20. 
High  School  series  of  models,  196. 
Hinges,  fixing,  160. 
Hinge-plates,  112. 
Hinge-sinking,  160. 
Hold-fast,  the,  67. 
Hole-rimer  drill,  110,  112. 
Hollow,  the,  102. 
Hollowing  out  with  gouge,  152. 

„         with  plane,  164. 
Hooping,  125,  166. 
Hoops  for  barrels,  89,  166. 
Horn  of  the  plane,  94,  99. 
Hornbeam,  the,  32,  35,  38,  39,  46-48, 

50,  52. 
Housing,  152. 

I 

Impregnation  of  timber,  42,  45. 
Individual  instruction,  16. 
Industry,  habits  of,  2. 
Insects,  attacks  of,  44,  45. 
Instruction,  individual,  16. 

„  intuitional,  13. 

„          time  given  to,  18. 
Intuitional  instruction,  13. 
Iron  handscrew,  the,  70. 
„    plane,  the,  100,  101. 


Jack-plane,  the,  24,  98,  99. 
Jointing,  119,  125. 

„        plain,  96,  146. 
Juniper,  the,  48-50,  52. 

K 

Knife,  the,  7,  22,  24,  88,  89. 
Key  of  bench,  63. 
Key-hole  saw,  the,  154. 


INDEX. 


209 


Labour,  bodily,  2,  8. 

Larch,  the,  32,  38,  39,  48,  50-52. 

Light  in  Slojd-room,  artificial,  21. 

Lignum  vitae,  47,  50,  57. 

Lime,  the,  35,  38,  39,  46-48,  50,  56, 

204. 

Liquid  glue,  120. 
Lock-fitting,  160. 
Long-cut,  126. 
Long  oblique  planing,  152. 
Long-sawing,  128. 
Luxury,  articles  of,  12. 

H 

Mahogany,  38,  39,  49,  50,  57. 

Mallet,  the,  113. 

Maple,  the,  33,  35,  38,  39,  46-48,  50, 

56. 

Marker,  the,  71,  72. 
Marking-gauge,  the,  24,  71,  72. 

„  English,  72. 

„  Johansson's,  72. 

„  Lundmark's,  71. 

Marking-point,  the,  71. 
Measurements,  70,  71. 
Medulla,  the,  33. 
Medullary  rays,  the,  28,  33. 
Metal  plates,  &c.,  sinking  and  fixing, 

144. 

Method,  9. 

Metre-measure,  the,  13,  24,  70,  71. 
Mitre-bevel,  the,  76. 
Mitreing,  125, 156. 
Mitre-shooting,  68. 
Modelled  articles,  12. 
Modelling,  convex,  134. 
Modelling  with  the  draw-knife,  148  ; 

with  the  spokeshave,  138. 
Models,  the,  11-14,  196  ;  rejected,  15. 
Monitor  of  Slojd-class,  the,  25. 
Mortise  and  tenon,  common,  156. 
Mortise  and  tenon-jointing,  125. 
Mortise-chisel,  the,  91. 


Mortise  blocking,  168. 
Muriatic  acid,  45. 

N 

Nailing,  123,  144. 
Nails,  beat,  123. 

„      cut,  123. 
Needle-leaved  trees,  30-32,  34,  40, 

49,  52. 
Notched  dove-tailing,  164. 

0 

Oak,  the,  31-35,  39,  46-52,  55,  198. 
Oblique  chiselling,  136. 

„       cut,  126. 

„       dove-tailing,  162. 

„       edge-grooving,  154. 

„       gouging,  146. 

„       paring,  136. 

,,       planing,  140. 

„       sawing,  138. 

„       slotting,  162. 
Obstacle-planing,  136. 
Oil-paint,  45. 
Oils,  volatile,  35. 
Oilstone,  the,  117. 

„         method  of  using,  117. 
Oilstone-slip,  118. 
Order,  habits  of,  2. 
Osier,  the,  48. 
Outside-pan  of  glue-pot,  119,  120. 

P 

Panel-grooving,  154. 
Panels  of  doors,  43. 
Paring,  perpendicular,  136. 

„       oblique,  136. 
Parting-gouge,  93. 
Parting-tool,  bent,  93. 

„  straight,  93. 

Pear,  the,  39,  47,  50,  56. 
Peg  of  a  saw,  83. 
Pegs,  fitting  in,  142. 
Pegs,  fixing  with  wooden,  1 48. 
Perpendicular  chiselling,  136. 
„  gouging,  144. 


210 


INDEX. 


Perpendicular  paring,  136. 

Perspective  drawings,  13. 

Physical    development,    harmonious, 

21,  22. 

Pin-bit,  the,  110. 
Pincers,  112,  113. 
Pine,  the,  32,  34,  196-199. 
Pins,  wooden,  124. 
Pith,  the,  28,  30,  33,  41 
Plain-jointing,  96,  146. 
Plane,  the,  22,  61,  93-104. 

„      the  adjustable,  102. 

„      the  compass,  102. 

„      the  hollow,  102. 

„      the  iron,  100,  101. 

„      the  jack,  24,  98,  99. 

,,      old  woman's  tooth,  102,  103. 

„      the  rebate,  101. 

„      the  round,  101. 

„      the  smoothing,  24,  60,  96,  100, 
101. 

„      the  toothing,  123. 

„     the  trying,  24,  60,  96,  99,  100. 
Plane,  concave  modelling  with,  164  ; 
convex     modelling    with,    1 34 ; 
hollowing  out  with,  164. 
Plane,  setting  the,  98. 
Plane-cover,  the,  95,  96. 
Plane-horn,  the,  94,  99. 
Plane-iron,  the,  94,  96-98. 
Plane-sole,  the,  94,  97. 
Plane-stock,  the,  94. 
Plane-surface  cut,  the,  134. 
Planing  across  the  grain,  148. 

„       with  round  plane,  14S. 

„       with  shooting  board,  150. 

„       bevelled  edge,  142. 

„       edge,  128. 

„      face,  77,  132. 

„       long  oblique,  152. 

„       oblique,  140. 

„       stop,  or  obstacle,  136. 

„       wedge,  148. 
Pliers,  flat-jawed,  114. 
round-jawed,  114. 


Plough,  the,  104. 

Plugging,  142. 

Plumbago,  64. 

Poplar,  the,  52,  54. 

Pores  in  wood,  the,  31. 

Position  of  the  body  during  work, 

21-24,  127,  129,  133,   137,   139. 

Plates  I— VIII. 
Preliminary  exercises,  11. 
Projections,  13. 
Punch,  the,  124. 
Punching,  144. 
Pupils  in  Slojd-class,  number  of,  18. 

R 

Radial  section,  27,  28. 

Rails  of  the  bench,  62,  64,  66. 

Rasps,  106. 

"  Raw  edge,"  117. 

Rebating,  158. 

Rebate-plane,  the,  101. 

Rebates,  dove-tail,  104. 

Rectangular  articles,  12. 

Red  deal,  204. 

Resin,  32,  35,  43,  45. 

Resin-canals,  32. 

Rowan,  the,  50, 56. 

Rule,  the  two-foot,  13,  24,  71. 

Ruler,  the,  71. 

Rules  for  the  Slojd-teacher,  24. 


Sand-paper,  25,  107,  108. 
Sale  of  articles,  26. 
Sap,  the,  28,  34. 

,,    constituents  of,  34,  35. 

„    crude  or  ascending,  34. 

„    elaborated,  34. 

„    fermentation  of,  43. 

„    removal  of,  42,  44,  45. 
Sap-wood,  the,  32,  47. 
Saw,  the,  22,  25,  47,  61,  77. 

„    the  bow,  83. 

„    the  broad-webbed  bow,  83,  85. 

,,    the  compass,  80,  8(5. 


INDEX. 


211 


Saw,  the  dove-tail,  86. 

„    the  frame,  78,  82. 

„    the  groove,  86,  87. 

„    the  hand,  85. 

„    the  tenon,  86. 

„    the  turn,  85. 

„    the  wood,  78,  81. 
Saw,  frame  of,  60. 
Saw,  setting  the,  78  81. 
Saw,  sharpening  the,  80,  81. 
Saw,  working  the,  84. 
Saw-blade,  the,  77,  80. 
Saw-blade,  attachments  of  the,  82-84. 
Saw-cut,  width  of  the,  79. 
Saw-peg,  the,  83. 
Saw-set,  the,  79,  80. 
Saw-stretcher,  83. 
Saw-sharpening  clamps,  79. 
Sawing,  circular,  148. 
„       convex,  134. 
„       long,  128. 
„       oblique,  138. 
„       up  and  down,  168. 
„       wave,  134. 
Sawing  off,  128. 
Sawing  with  compass-saw,  154. 

„      with  tenon-saw,  134. 
Scraper,  the,  24,  106,  107- 
Scraping,  107,  136. 
Screw-driver,  the,  110,  112,  114. 
Screw-driver  bit,  the,  110,  112. 
Screwing  together,  122,  124,  148. 
Screws,  fixing  with,  148. 
Screws,  wood,  124,  125. 
Seasoning  of  timber,  40-42,  44. 
Section  of  stem,  cross,  27,  28. 
„  radial,  27,  28. 

„  tangential,  27,  28. 

Self-reliance,  habits  of,  2,  14. 
Septa,  transverse,  33. 
Set-bevel,  the,  76. 
Set-hammer,  the,  167. 
Setting  out,  70,  152. 
Setting  the  plane,  98. 
Setting  the  saw,  78-81. 


Setting-tongs,  80. 
Sharp  tools,  24,  25,  61,  115. 
Sharpening  the  centre-bit,  111. 
„          the  saw,  80,  81. 
„          tools,  88,  115. 
Shell-bit,  the,  110. 
Shooting-board,  the,  67,  68. 
Shoulder  of  chisel,  90. 
Shrinkage  of  timber,  36-39,  45. 
Silver  grain,  the,  33. 
Single  dove-tailing  at  right  angles, 

148. 
Sinking  and  fixing  metal  plates,  &c., 

144. 

Situation  of  Slojd-room,  20. 
Size  of  tools,  59,  60. 
Slojd,  aim  of,  2. 

„     educational,  1. 
Slojd  and  gymnastics,  21. 
Slojd-carpentry,  6,  7,  21. 
Slojd  knife,  88,  89. 
Slojd-room,  18-21.    Plate  IX. 
Slotting,  125,  156. 

„        oblique,  162. 
Smoothing  up,  140. 
Smoothing  with  the  spokeshave,  138. 
Smoothing-plane,  the,  24,  60,  96, 100, 

101. 
Smoothing-plane,  dressing  up   with 

the,  140. 

Sole  of  the  plane,  94,  97. 
Specific  gravity  of  timber,  50. 
Spindle  of  marking-gauge,  71-73. 
Spokeshave,  the,  104. 

„      modelling  with  the,  138. 

„      smoothing  up  with  the,  138. 
Spoon-gouge,  the,  92. 
Spoon-iron,  the,  7,  92. 
Sprigs,  123. 
Spring-wood,  29. 
Square,  the,  24,  74,  75,  76. 

,,      steel,  75. 

„      wooden,  75. 

„      to  test  the,  75,  76. 
Square-grooving,  152. 


212 


INDEX. 


Square-shooting,  150. 

Squaring,  130. 

Starch,  34. 

Staving,  164. 

Steaming,  42,  45. 

Stock  of  marking  gauge,  71,  72. 

„     of  plane,  94. 

„    of  set  bavel,  76. 

„    of  square,  75. 
Stop  champher-plane,  137. 
Stop-planing,  136. 
Straight-edges,  76,  77. 
Straight-fibred  wood,  29,  46,  94. 
Strength  of  timber,  45,  46. 
Stretcher  of  saw,  83. 
String  of  saw,  83. 
Sugar,  34. 

Support  for  grinding,  116. 
Support  for  hand,  in  jack-plane,  (Ji). 
Surface-cut  plane,  134. 
Swelling  of  timber,  36,  39,  45. 
Sycamore,  the,  204. 


Tang  of  knife,  88. 
„     of  chisel,  90. 

Tangential  section  of  stem,  27,  28. 
Tannic  acid,  35,  43,  45. 
Teacher  of  Slojd,  the,  2-6,  61. 
Technical  dexterity,  3-5. 
Teeth  of  the  saw,  77,  78,  81,  84. 
Tenon,  common  mortise  and,  156. 
Tenon-saw,  the,  86. 
Tenoning,  concealed,  166. 
Texture  of  timber,  48. 
Thumb-screw  cramp,  the,  70. 
Tightener  of  saw,  83,  84. 
Timber  (see  also  Wood),  27. 

„      absolute  weight  of,  51. 

„      colour  of,  48,  49. 

„      decay  of,  43. 

„       durability  of,  45,  51. 

,,      elasticity  of,  48. 

„       hardness  of,  46,  48. 

„       seasoning  of,  40-42,  44. 


Timber,  smell  of,  48,  49. 

„      Specific  gravity  of,  50. 

„      strength  of,  45,  46. 

„      texture  of,  48. 

„      time  for  cutting  down,  40,  44. 

„      toughness  of,  48. 

.,      warping  of,  36,  40-42. 

„      weight  of,  50. 
Time  given  to  instruction,  18. 
Tools  required  for  different  numbers  of 

pupils,  201-203 
Tools,  choice  of,  59-61,  204. 

.,      cost  of  providing,  204. 

„      cupboard  for,  1 18.     Plate  XL 
sharp,  24,  25,  61. 

,,      sharpening,  88,  115-118. 

„      size  of,  59,  60. 

„      toy,  59. 

Tool-cupboard,  the,  118.    Plate  XI. 
Too  thing -plane,  the,  123. 
Trainer's  bench,  66,  67. 
Trammel-heads,  74. 
Transverse  septa,  33. 
Trees,  broad-leaved,  30,  31,  33,  52. 

„     needle-leaved,  30-32, 34,  40, 44, 

49,  52. 

Trying-plane,  the,  24,  60,  96,  99,  100. 
Turning,  8. 
Turn- saw,  the,  85. 
Turpentine,  35. 

u 

Up-and-down  sawing,  168. 


Varnish,  45. 
Vessels,  31,  49. 
Vice-tongue,  63. 
Volatile  oils,  35. 
V-tool,  158. 


w 


Walls  of  the  Slojd-room,  20. 
Walnut,  the,  38,  39,  42,  47,  50,  56. 
Warming  the  Slojd-room,  20,  21. 


INDEX. 


213 


Warping  of  timber,  36,  40-42. 

Water-capacity,  35,  36. 

Wave- sawing,  134. 

Wedge  of  the  plane,  the,  94,  96,  97. 

Wedge-planing  with  smoothing-plane, 

148. 
Weight  of  timber,  50. 

„      absolute,  51. 
White-beam,  the,  39,  46-48,  56. 
Width  of  saw-cut,  79. 
Willow,  the,  35. 
Winding-laths,  76. 
Windows  of  the  Slojd-room,  20. 
Wire-cutter,  the,  113. 
Wood  (see  also  Timber),  27. 

„      autumn,  30-32. 

„      colour  of,  48,  49. 

„      cross-grained,  46. 


Wood,  spring,  29. 

„      straight-fibred,  29,  46,  94. 

„      work  in  hard,  140. 
Wooden  bevel,  the,  76. 

„       handscrew,  the,  68. 
Wooden  pins,  124. 
Wood-carving,  8. 
Wood-cells,  28. 
Wood-cement,  121. 
Wood-fibres,  29. 
Wood-saw,  the,  78,  8J. 
Wood-screws,  124,  125. 
Wood-Slojd,  6. 
Work  in  hard  wood,  140. 
Working  the  saw,  84. 


Yen,  the,  33. 


A    000039518    6 


